World War I: League of Nations | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Origins of the League of Nations

• The League of Nations was an international organization established on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that concluded World War I. It was the first organization with the primary goal of maintaining global peace.
• Although often associated with American President Woodrow Wilson, the League was the outcome of various proposals made by world leaders during the war. Figures like Lord Robert Cecil from Britain, Jan Smuts from South Africa, and Leon Bourgeois from France presented detailed plans for such an organization.
• British Prime Minister Lloyd George regarded it as one of Britain’s war objectives, and Wilson included it in his famous 14 Points. Wilson's significant contribution was ensuring that the League Covenant, a set of operational rules for the League, was included in the peace treaties. This was crucial in making the League a reality rather than just a topic of discussion.

Two Main Aims of the League

The League of Nations had two primary aims:

1. To Maintain Peace through Collective Security: The League aimed to ensure peace by having all member states act together against any aggressor. If one state attacked another, the League members would respond collectively, using economic or military measures to restrain the aggressor.
2. To Encourage International Cooperation: The League sought to promote cooperation among nations to address economic and social issues. By fostering collaboration, the League aimed to prevent conflicts and promote stability.

Main Function of the League:

• The League of Nations was primarily intended to be a peacekeeping organization. Its main function was to prevent disputes from escalating into wars. The League was designed to operate in the following way:
• Disputes that had the potential to lead to war would be submitted to the League for resolution. If a member country resorted to war, violating the Covenant, it would face collective action from the other member states. The League’s Council would recommend what military, naval, or air force contributions were necessary from the member countries to maintain peace.

Organization of the League of Nations

At its outset, the League of Nations comprised 42 member states, which grew to 55 by 1926 with the inclusion of Germany. The League was structured around five main organs:

The General Assembly:

• The General Assembly convened annually, with representatives from all member states, each holding one vote.
• It was responsible for setting general policies, proposing revisions to peace treaties, and managing the League's finances.
• All decisions made by the Assembly required unanimous agreement.
• The Assembly provided a platform for small and medium-sized states to voice their concerns and influence global issues.

The Council:

• The Council was a smaller body that met at least three times a year.
• It included four permanent members: Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. Although the USA was initially intended to be a permanent member, it chose not to join the League.
• The Council also included additional members elected by the Assembly for three-year terms. By 1926, the number of non-permanent members had increased to nine.
• The Council was tasked with addressing specific political disputes as they arose, with decisions requiring unanimous consent.

The Permanent Court of International Justice:

• Based in The Hague, Netherlands, this court consisted of 15 judges from different countries and focused on legal disputes between states rather than political issues.
• Operational since 1922, the court had successfully resolved 66 cases by 1939, earning respect for establishing a generally accepted legal framework in international relations.

The Secretariat:

• The Secretariat managed administrative tasks such as preparing agendas and drafting resolutions and reports to ensure the implementation of the League's decisions.
• Functioning like an international civil service, the Secretariat gained respect for its organizational and administrative efficiency, similar to the Court of Justice.

Commissions and Committees:

• The League established various commissions and committees to address specific issues, many of which emerged from the aftermath of World War I.
• Key commissions dealt with mandates, military affairs, minority groups, and disarmament.
• There were also committees focused on international labor, health, economic and financial organization, child welfare, drug issues, and women's rights.

Reasons for the League of Nations' Failure in Preserving Peace

Close Ties to the Versailles Treaties:

• The League was seen as an organization benefiting the victorious powers.
• It had to defend an imperfect peace settlement, which included contentious territorial changes that upset countries like Italy and Germany.

Rejection by the USA:

• The League suffered a major setback when the US Senate rejected the Versailles settlement and the League in March 1920.
• The absence of the USA deprived the League of a powerful member that could have provided significant psychological and financial support.

Exclusion of Key Powers:

• Germany was not allowed to join the League until 1926, and the USSR only became a member in 1934, after Germany left.
• This exclusion weakened the League in its early years, as it lacked the involvement of three major world powers.

Conference of Ambassadors' Interference:

• The Conference of Ambassadors, intended as a temporary measure, often took precedence over the League.
• Instances like the Vilna dispute and the Corfu Incident showed the Conference overriding the League's decisions.

Weaknesses in the Covenant:

• The Covenant had serious weaknesses that hindered decisive action against aggressors.
• Unanimous decisions were hard to achieve, and the League had no military force of its own.
• Article 16, which expected member states to supply troops, was undermined by a 1923 resolution allowing each member to decide for itself whether to intervene.

British Reluctance:

• The British government was hesitant to commit to defending all the 1919 frontiers due to public pacifism and a belief in Britain's military weakness.
• Many other League members shared this reluctance, undermining the system of collective security.

Dominance of France and Britain:

• With the USA absent and the USSR hostile, the League became largely a French and British affair.
• Britain's lack of enthusiasm for the League, preferring treaties like the Locarno Treaties, further limited its effectiveness.

Impact of the Great Depression:

• The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 worsened the League's situation, leading to the rise of extreme right-wing governments in Japan and Germany.

Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931):

• When Japan invaded Manchuria, the League condemned the action and demanded withdrawal.
• Japan refused to comply, and the League's response was weakened by the economic difficulties of Britain and France, who were hesitant to impose sanctions.

Failure of the World Disarmament Conference (1932-33):

• The disarmament conference ended in disappointment, contributing to the League's decline.
• Germany's withdrawal from the conference and later from the League was partly due to the conference's inability to meet German demands.

Italian Invasion of Abyssinia (1935):

• The League's response to Italy's invasion of Abyssinia was a severe blow to its credibility.
• Economic sanctions were imposed but not fully effective, as key exports like oil, coal, and steel were exempt.
• The sanctions were eventually lifted, and Mussolini's defiance of the League had significant consequences, including altering alliances in Europe.

Lack of Support for the League:

• The League's failure was largely due to the lack of support from its leading members, particularly France and Britain, when faced with aggressive states like Japan, Italy, and Germany.
• The League's strength depended on the determination of its members to confront aggression, which was lacking in the 1930s.

The League of Nations: A Step Towards International Cooperation

Some historians argue that the League of Nations should not be viewed as a total failure in world history. Ruth Henig, for instance, in her book The League of Nations (2010),suggests that the League was a significant step towards international cooperation, succeeding in some areas while failing in others.

Key Arguments by Ruth Henig:

• The League laid the groundwork for the United Nations, contributing to the contemporary global system of international organization.
• Expectations for the League’s success were unrealistic, given its lack of an army and enforcement mechanisms.
• The League provided an experimental phase that informed the creation of a more effective international cooperation framework.
• Many UN bodies, such as the International Court of Justice and the International Labour Organization (ILO),were built on the League’s foundations.
• Despite its limitations, the League fostered international cooperation through various committees and commissions.

International Labour Organization (ILO):

• The ILO, led by Albert Thomas,was one of the League’s most successful agencies.
• It aimed to improve global labor conditions by persuading governments to establish regulations on working hours, wages, sickness and unemployment benefits, and old-age pensions.

The Refugee Organization:

• This organization addressed the plight of former prisoners of war stranded in Russia after World War I, successfully repatriating about 500,000 individuals.
• After 1933,it also provided assistance to many fleeing Nazi persecution in Germany.

The Health Organization:

• The Health Organization conducted investigations into the causes of epidemics and was particularly effective in combating a typhus epidemic in Russia,which posed a threat of spreading across Europe.

The Mandates Commission:

• This commission supervised the administration of territories taken from Germany and Turkey.
• It efficiently organized the 1935 plebiscite for the Saar region, where a majority voted for its return to Germany.

Disarmament Commission:

• Unlike other committees, the Disarmament Commission struggled to persuade member states to reduce armaments, despite their initial promises.

Political Disputes Resolved:

• In the early 1920s,several political disputes were referred to the League, with the majority of its decisions accepted.
• Disputes between Finland and Sweden, Germany and Poland, Greece and Bulgaria, and Turkey and Iraq were resolved by the League.
• Disputes in South America between Peru and Colombia, and between Bolivia and Paraguay, were also settled.

However, these disputes did not pose serious threats to world peace. The League’s authority was challenged when it was overruled by the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris, which dealt with issues arising from the Versailles Treaties.

Despite its challenges, the League of Nations represented a significant effort in promoting international collaboration and compromise. Instead of focusing solely on its shortcomings, it is important to acknowledge the League’s successes and the lessons learned from its history.