Interwar Period: Mussolini’s Foreign Policy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Mussolini's Foreign Policy

• In the early years of Mussolini's rule, starting in 1922, Italy's foreign policy appeared somewhat disorganized. Mussolini had a clear goal: to make Italy 'great, respected, and feared.' However, he was uncertain about how to achieve this, except for wanting to revise the 1919 peace settlement in Italy's favor.

• Initially, Mussolini seemed to believe that an adventurous foreign policy was the way to go. This belief led to events like the Corfu Incident(a diplomatic and military crisis between Greece and Italy) and the occupation of Fiume in 1923.
• According to an agreement signed in Rapallo in 1920, Fiume was meant to be a 'free city,' jointly used by Italy and Yugoslavia. However, after Italian troops entered the city, Yugoslavia agreed to cede it to Italy.
• Following these early successes, Mussolini became more cautious, possibly due to Italy's isolation during the Corfu crisis.
• After 1923, his foreign policy can be divided into two phases, with a significant shift in 1934 when he began to align more closely with Nazi Germany.

Phase I: 1923-34

Rivalry with France:

• In this period, Mussolini's foreign policy was shaped by competition with France in the Mediterranean and the Balkans.
• Italian relations with Yugoslavia, a country allied with France, were often tense.

German Threat:

• Mussolini was also concerned about the potential German influence over Austria, located along Italy's north-eastern border.
• He feared this could pose a threat to Italy through the Brenner Pass, a key mountain pass between Italy and Austria.

Diplomatic Measures:Locarno Conference:

• 1925: Mussolini attended the Locarno Conference, hoping for stronger guarantees for Italy's frontier with Austria.
• However, he was disappointed when the agreements did not meet his expectations.

Relations with Greece, Hungary, and Albania:

• Mussolini fostered friendly relations with Greece, Hungary, and particularly Albania.
• These countries were seen as strategic partners against Yugoslavia.

Control over Albania:

• Through economic and defense agreements, Italy gained significant influence over Albania.
• This strengthened Italy's position in the Adriatic Sea region.

Good Relations with Britain:

• Mussolini worked to maintain positive relations with Britain.
• He supported Britain's claim over the Mosul province in Iraq, and in return, Britain granted Italy a small part of Somaliland.

Good Relations with the USSR:

• Italy was the first country after Britain to recognize the USSR.
• A non-aggression pact was signed between Italy and the USSR in September 1933, reflecting improved relations.

Support for Austria against Nazi Germany:

• Mussolini sought to strengthen Austria against the threat of Nazi Germany by supporting Chancellor Dollfuss's anti-Nazi government.
• He signed trade agreements with Austria and Hungary to bolster their economies.

Support for Austria against Nazi Germany:

• July 1934: After Dollfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis, Mussolini reacted by sending three Italian divisions to the Austrian border.
• This move was intended as a deterrent against a potential German invasion of Austria.

Improved relations with France:

• Mussolini's decisive stance against Germany improved Italy's relations with France.
• Despite gaining respect internationally, Mussolini felt his achievements were not impressive enough.

Phase II: After 1934

Shift in Attitude Towards Hitler:

• Mussolini moved from being suspicious of Hitler's intentions towards Austria to admiring Hitler's successes and wanting to emulate him.
• He believed that aligning with Germany offered more benefits than maintaining good relations with Britain and France.

Increased Aggressiveness:

• As Mussolini became more influenced by Hitler, he adopted a more aggressive foreign policy.

Condemnation of German Conscription:

• March 1935: When Hitler reintroduced conscription, Mussolini initially condemned the action alongside Britain and France.

Formation of the Stresa Front:

• April 1935: The Stresa Front was established as a coalition of France, Britain, and Italy to oppose Hitler's rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
• During this time, the British and French leaders avoided mentioning the emerging crisis in Abyssinia.

Misinterpretation of British and French Intentions:

• Mussolini interpreted the British and French leaders' silence on Abyssinia as a tacit approval of an Italian invasion.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement:

• June 1935: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement convinced Mussolini of British hypocrisy and self-interest.

Italian Invasion of Abyssinia (1935):

• Turning Point: The invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935 marked a significant turning point in Mussolini's career.
• Abyssinia was the last independent state in Africa, and Italy's involvement dated back to a failed colonization attempt in 1896.

Motives for the Invasion:

• Mussolini's motives for the 1935 attack included:
• Economic Factors: Italy's existing colonies in East Africa (Eritrea and Somaliland) were underperforming.
• Mussolini's efforts to reduce Abyssinia to a status similar to that of Albania had failed.
• Domestic Discontent: Italy was experiencing economic difficulties, and a victorious war would divert attention from internal issues.
• Nationalist Sentiment: A successful invasion would satisfy nationalists and colonialists, avenge the defeat of 1896, and boost Mussolini's declining popularity.

Outcome of the Invasion:

• The Italian victory over the poorly equipped and unprepared Ethiopian forces was anticipated.
• The invasion highlighted the failure of collective security, as the League condemned Italy as an aggressor and imposed economic sanctions.

Weakness of Sanctions:

• The League's sanctions were ineffective because they did not include a ban on oil and coal sales to Italy.
• Such a ban would have severely hindered Italy's war effort.

Impact on the League of Nations:

• The League's credibility suffered further when it was revealed that the British Foreign Secretary had secretly agreed with French Prime Minister Laval to cede a large section of Abyssinia to Italy.
• This agreement exceeded the territory Italy had captured at that time.

Reasons for Weak Response:

• The weak response of Britain and France was due to their military and economic unpreparedness for war.
• They aimed to avoid actions, like oil sanctions, that could provoke Mussolini into declaring war on them.
• Additionally, they hoped to revive the Stresa Front and use Italy as an ally against the growing threat of Germany.

Consequences:

• The League and the concept of collective security were discredited.
• Mussolini, dissatisfied with the sanctions, began moving closer to Hitler, who had not condemned the invasion or imposed sanctions.
• In return, Mussolini softened his objections to a German takeover of Austria.

Hitler's Actions:

• Hitler took advantage of the international focus on Abyssinia by sending troops into the Rhineland.

Involvement in the Spanish Civil War:

• When the Spanish Civil War erupted in 1936, Mussolini provided significant support to Francisco Franco, the Nationalist leader.
• Mussolini aimed to establish a third fascist state in Europe and secure naval bases in Spain to threaten France.
• His justification for involvement was the desire to prevent the spread of communism.

Friendship with Germany

Rome-Berlin Axis:

• Italy established a partnership with Germany, known as the Rome-Berlin Axis.
• Mussolini described the Axis as a line connecting Rome and Berlin, around which all European states seeking peace could revolve.

Anti-Comintern Pact:

• In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact alongside Germany and Japan.
• The pact involved a commitment to stand united against Bolshevism.
• This shift in policy and the growing friendship with Germany were not universally accepted in Italy, leading to a rise in disillusionment with Mussolini.
• Mussolini briefly regained popularity with his role in the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which appeared to secure peace.
• However, he misinterpreted the public's relief—most Italians did not want another war—and proceeded with further aggressive actions.
• In April 1939, Italian troops unexpectedly occupied Albania with minimal resistance.
• This operation was deemed unnecessary since Albania was already under Italian economic control, but Mussolini sought a victory to mirror Hitler's recent occupation of Czechoslovakia.

Pact of Steel (May 1939):

• Emboldened by his previous successes, Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel in May 1939, a full alliance with Germany.
• Italy committed to providing complete military support in the event of war.
• This decision deepened Italy's involvement with Germany, ultimately leading to Mussolini's downfall.

Relations between Japan and China

(a) The Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931:

• The motives behind Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 were complex and multifaceted.
• Japan felt it was crucial to maintain control over Manchuria due to its significance as a trade outlet and because of the large Japanese population there.
• Additionally, there was concern that China, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, was becoming stronger and might push Japan out of Manchuria.
• At the League of Nations,Sir John Simon, the British Foreign Secretary, defended Japan's actions, highlighting Japan's historical involvement in the region since the 1890s.
• Japan had gained control of Port Arthur and a privileged position in South Manchuria following the Russo-Japanese War(1904-1905).
• Over the years, Japan had invested heavily in Manchuria, developing its industry and railways. By 1931, Japan controlled the South Manchurian Railway and the banking system.
• Amidst the economic challenges of the Great Depression, Japan felt compelled to secure its interests in Manchuria, which had a population of 30 million.
• In 1931, Japan declared Manchuria an independent state called Manchukuo, with Pu Yi, the last Chinese emperor, as its figurehead. This move was largely seen as a facade, yet no immediate action was taken against Japan.
• However, Japan's subsequent actions were viewed as outright aggression.

(b) The Japanese Advance from Manchuria:

• In 1933, Japan began to expand its control from Manchuria into the rest of northeastern China, despite having no legitimate claim to the territory.
• By 1935, a significant portion of China, extending as far as Beijing(Peking), had come under Japanese political and commercial control.
• During this time, China was weakened by a civil war between Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang government and the communists led by Mao Zedong.

(c) Further Invasions:

• After signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany in 1936, Japan used an incident involving Chinese and Japanese troops in Beijing as a pretext to invade further into China starting in July 1937.
• Although Prime Minister Prince Konoye was opposed to such extensive intervention, he succumbed to the pressures of General Sugiyama, the war minister.
• By autumn 1938, Japanese forces had taken major cities like Shanghai, Nanking(the capital under Chiang Kai-shek), and Hankow, committing horrific atrocities against Chinese civilians.
• Despite these gains, Japan did not achieve complete victory. Chiang Kai-shek managed to forge a temporary alliance with the communists to resist the Japanese invaders.
• A new Chinese capital was established inland at Chungking, where determined resistance was mounted with assistance from the Russians.
• Although Japanese troops captured Canton in southern China, Chiang refused to surrender or accept Japanese terms.
• The League of Nations condemned Japanese aggression but was ineffective in taking action since Japan was no longer a member and declined to participate in a conference regarding the situation in China.
• Britain and France were preoccupied with the challenges posed by Hitler, while Russia was unwilling to engage in a full-scale war with Japan. The USA, the only power capable of effectively resisting Japan, was still focused on isolationism.
• Thus, on the brink of the Second World War, Japan controlled most of eastern China, though its hold outside the cities was tenuous, while Chiang Kai-shek continued to resist in the central and western parts of the country.