Munich Agreement to Outbreak of the World War II | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Munich to the Outbreak of the World War II

Czechoslovakia

• Hitler was determined to dismantle Czechoslovakia as part of his Lebensraum(living space) policy. He held a deep-seated dislike for the Czechs due to their democratic system, their Slavic ethnicity, and the fact that their state was established by the unpopular Versailles settlement.
• The strategic location of Czechoslovakia was also a key factor in Hitler's plans. Gaining control over this region would significantly enhance Germany's military and economic dominance in central Europe.

The Propaganda Campaign in the Sudetenland

• Hitler initiated a propaganda campaign in the Sudetenland, claiming that 3.5 million Sudeten Germans, led by Konrad Henlein, were facing discrimination from the Czech government. While it was true that unemployment was higher among the Sudeten Germans, this was primarily because many of them were employed in the industrial sector, which was severely affected by the economic depression.
• The Nazis organized large protest demonstrations in the Sudetenland, leading to clashes between Czechs and Germans. Czech President Edvard Benes was concerned that Hitler was inciting these disturbances as a pretext for German troops to invade under the guise of restoring order.
• British Prime Minister Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Daladier feared that such an invasion could trigger a war. In their efforts to prevent conflict, they pressured the Czechs to make concessions to Hitler. Eventually, Benes agreed to the possibility of handing over the Sudeten Germans to Germany.
• Chamberlain traveled to Germany to discuss the proposal with Hitler at Berchtesgaden on September 15. Initially, Hitler appeared to accept the offer. However, during a subsequent meeting at Godesberg just a week later, he escalated his demands, insisting on more territory from Czechoslovakia and the immediate entry of German troops into the Sudetenland.
• When Benes refused these terms, he ordered the mobilization of the Czech army. The Czechs had invested significant effort in fortifying their borders with Germany, Austria, and Hungary, constructing bunkers and anti-tank defenses. They had expanded their army and were hopeful that, with support from allies like France and the USSR, they could repel any German attack. It was clear that an invasion would not be easy for the Germans.

The Munich Conference and Its Aftermath (September 1938 - March 1939)

The Munich Conference (29 September 1938):

• As the threat of war loomed, Hitler extended an invitation to British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Premier Édouard Daladier for a four-power conference in Munich, which also included Italy.
• At this conference, a plan proposed by Mussolini, but actually drafted by the German Foreign Office, was accepted. The key points of the agreement included:
• Surrender of the Sudetenland: The Sudetenland was to be handed over to Germany immediately.
• Territorial Adjustments: Poland was granted Teschen, and Hungary received South Slovakia.
• Guarantee of Czechoslovakia: Germany and the other three powers guaranteed the integrity of the rest of Czechoslovakia.
• Notably, neither the Czechs nor the Russians were invited to the conference. The Czechs were warned that any resistance to the Munich decision would result in a lack of support from Britain and France, despite France's earlier guarantee of Czech frontiers at Locarno.
• Faced with this betrayal and the unyielding stance of Britain, Czech military resistance appeared futile. The Czechs had no choice but to accept the conference's decision.
• In the aftermath, Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš resigned.

Scrap of Paper:

• The day after the Munich Conference, Chamberlain held a private meeting with Hitler, during which they signed a statement known as the "scrap of paper." This document, prepared by Chamberlain, pledged that Britain and Germany would renounce warlike intentions against each other and resolve any arising issues through consultation.
• Upon his return to Britain, Chamberlain waved the "scrap of paper" for the newsreel cameras and received a warm welcome from the public, who believed that war had been averted. Chamberlain famously remarked, "I believe it is peace for our time."
• However, not everyone shared this optimism. Winston Churchill criticized the Munich Agreement as a "total and unmitigated defeat," and Duff Cooper resigned from the cabinet, expressing distrust in Hitler's ability to uphold the agreement. History would prove them correct.

The Destruction of Czechoslovakia (March 1939):

• The Munich Agreement severely weakened Czechoslovakia, which lost 70 percent of its heavy industry, a third of its population, roughly a third of its territory, and nearly all its fortified defenses, primarily to Germany.
• Slovakia and Ruthenia were granted self-government for internal affairs, although a central government remained in Prague.
• In early 1939, Slovakia, encouraged by Germany, began to push for complete independence from Prague, leading to a potential disintegration of the country. Hitler pressured Slovak Prime Minister Father Jozef Tiso to declare independence and seek German assistance. However, Tiso was cautious.
• On 9 March 1939, the Prague government preemptively acted against the Slovaks to prevent an expected declaration of independence. Tiso was placed under house arrest, and Slovak government buildings in Bratislava were occupied by police.
• This action provided Hitler with an opportunity to intervene. Tiso was brought to Berlin, where Hitler convinced him that the time was right for independence. Back in Bratislava, Tiso and the Slovaks proclaimed independence on 14 March and requested German protection the following day.
• Next, Czech President Emil Hacha was summoned to Berlin, where Hitler demanded the imposition of a protectorate over the remaining parts of Czechoslovakia to protect the German Reich.
• Faced with the threat of German troops entering his country, Hacha felt compelled to agree. As a result, on 15 March 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia while the Czech army remained in barracks.
• Slovakia was established as an independent state under the protection of the Reich, and Ruthenia was occupied by Hungarian troops.
• Britain and France protested but, as usual, took no action. Chamberlain claimed that the guarantee of Czech frontiers made at Munich did not apply because technically the country had not been invaded—German troops had entered by invitation.
• Hitler was welcomed with enthusiasm during his visit to the Sudetenland. However, his actions sparked widespread criticism, as he had broken his promise and seized non-German territory. Even Chamberlain found this breach of agreement unacceptable, leading to a hardening of his stance.
• The consequences of these events included:
• Loss of a Strong Ally: Britain and France lost a strong ally in Czechoslovakia.
• Increased Suspicion: Russia became more suspicious of Britain and France after being excluded from the negotiations.
• Public Sentiment: The British public initially celebrated the avoidance of war but grew increasingly concerned that Hitler was not merely a negotiator but an aggressive leader. This shift in perception led to a buildup of British forces in preparation for potential conflict.

Poland

After capturing the Lithuanian port of Memel, which had a significant German population, Hitler turned his focus towards Poland.

Hitler's Demands on Poland:

• The Germans were unhappy about losing Danzig and the Polish Corridor after World War I at the Treaty of Versailles. With Czechoslovakia dealt with, Hitler felt Polish neutrality was no longer needed.
• In April 1939, Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and wanted a road and railway through the Polish Corridor to connect East Prussia with the rest of Germany. This demand was somewhat justified as Danzig had a mainly German-speaking population.
• However, coming shortly after the annexation of Czechoslovakia, the Poles saw these demands as a precursor to invasion. Strengthened by a British promise of support for Polish independence, Polish Foreign Minister Colonel Beck rejected the German demands and declined to attend a conference, fearing a repeat of the Munich Agreement.
• British pressure on Poland to concede Danzig was unsuccessful. Hitler was likely surprised by Beck's firmness and still hoped to maintain good relations with Poland for the time being.

The German Invasion of Poland:

• The only way for Britain to honor its promise of help to Poland was through an alliance with the Soviet Union. However, British negotiations for such an alliance were slow, allowing Hitler to act first by signing a non-aggression pact with the USSR.
• The pact included a secret agreement to divide Poland between Germany and the USSR (on August 24, 1939). With Russia neutral, Hitler believed Britain and France would not intervene.
• When Poland refused to negotiate, Germany launched a full-scale invasion on September 1, 1939. British Prime Minister Chamberlain, still influenced by appeasement, suggested a conference if German troops withdrew, but received no response from Germany.
• As pressure grew in Parliament and the public, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum to Germany: withdraw troops from Poland or face war. Hitler ignored the ultimatum, and when it expired on September 3, Britain declared war on Germany. France followed suit shortly after.

Chronology Leading to the Second World War:

• March 15, 1939: German forces invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.
• March 31, 1939: Britain promised to defend Poland.
• May 22, 1939: Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel, agreeing to support each other in case of war.
• August 23, 1939: Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, shocking France and Britain. The pact included a secret agreement to divide Poland between the two powers.
• September 1, 1939: German forces invaded Poland.
• September 3, 1939: Britain declared war on Germany.

Who Was to Blame for the Outbreak of War?

• The debate about the causes of the Second World War continues. Some blame the Treaty of Versailles for creating resentment in Germany.
• Criticism has been directed at the League of Nations and the concept of collective security for failing to ensure disarmament and control potential aggressors.
• The global economic crisis is also mentioned, as it likely helped Hitler rise to power.
• While these factors contributed to an environment ripe for conflict, something more was needed.
• By the end of 1938, most of Germany's grievances were addressed: reparations were largely canceled, disarmament clauses ignored, the Rhineland remilitarized, Austria and Germany united, and 3.5 million Germans incorporated into the Reich from Czechoslovakia.
• Germany had regained its status as a great power. So what went wrong?
• Some historians argue that appeasement was primarily responsible for the deteriorating situation leading to war.
• They contend that Britain and France should have confronted Hitler before he grew too strong. An Anglo-French attack on western Germany in 1936 during the Rhineland occupation could have taught Hitler a lesson and possibly toppled him.
• By yielding to him, appeasers enhanced his prestige at home. As Alan Bullock noted, 'success and the absence of resistance tempted Hitler to reach out further, to take bigger risks.'
• He may not have had definite plans for war, but after the surrender at Munich, he became so convinced that Britain and France would remain passive that he gambled on war with Poland.
• Chamberlain is also criticized for choosing the wrong issue to confront Hitler.
• Some argue that German claims for Danzig and routes across the corridor were more reasonable than the demands for the Sudetenland, which had a significant non-German population.
• Poland was more difficult for Britain and France to defend and was militarily weaker than Czechoslovakia.
• Chamberlain should have taken a stand at Munich and supported the Czechs, who were militarily and industrially stronger and had excellent fortifications.
• Defenders of Chamberlain argue that his primary aim at Munich was to buy time for Britain to rearm against Hitler.
• Munich arguably provided a crucial year for Britain to advance its rearmament program.
• John Charmley suggests that Chamberlain had little choice but to act as he did, and his policies were more realistic than alternatives like forming a Grand Alliance with Britain, France, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the USSR.
• Churchill proposed this idea at the time, but Andrew Roberts argues it was never a serious possibility due to the many disagreements among these nations.
• Robert Self believes Chamberlain had few viable options and deserves credit for trying to prevent war.
• He suggests that a 'normal' leader, like Stresemann, would have responded positively to Chamberlain's reasonable policies, but Hitler was not a typical German statesman.
• Despite this, Britain and France must share some responsibility for the war in 1939.
• As Richard Overy pointed out, war in 1939 was declared by Britain and France on Germany, not the other way around.

Why Did Britain and France Go to War with Germany?

• Britain and France had complex interests and motives for going to war. Their decisions on international issues were influenced by public opinion and potential adversaries elsewhere.
• Before 1939, British and French policy was primarily driven by national self-interest, with moral considerations being secondary.
• In other words, like Germany, Britain and France were keen to maintain or expand their power and protect their economic interests. Ultimately, this led them to go to war in 1939 to preserve Franco-British power and prestige.

Did the USSR Make War Inevitable?

• The USSR has been blamed for making war unavoidable by signing the non-aggression pact with Germany on August 23, 1939, which included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two nations.
• Critics argue that Stalin should have allied with the West and Poland to deter Hitler from aggression. However, the British were reluctant to ally with the Soviets; Chamberlain distrusted the communists, as did the Poles, and he viewed the Soviet Union as militarily weak.
• Russian historians defend the pact as a means for the USSR to prepare for a potential German invasion.

Was Hitler to Blame?

• Many historians believe that Hitler had long-term plans for a major war, aimed at destroying communism and permanently subjugating Russia to gain Lebensraum (living space).
• They argue that the conquest of Poland was a necessary step before invading Russia, and the non-aggression pact with the USSR was a tactic to keep Russia neutral until Poland was dealt with.
• Evidence for this perspective comes from Hitler's writings in Mein Kampf, the Hossbach Memorandum, and Hitler's Secret Book, which outlined his expansionist goals.
• By attacking Poland on multiple fronts rather than just occupying Danzig and the Corridor, Hitler demonstrated his intention to not just reclaim lost territory but to obliterate Poland.
• Martin Gilbert suggests that part of Hitler's motivation was to erase the shame of defeat in World War I, as 'the only antidote to defeat in one war is victory in the next.'
• The Hossbach memorandum indicates that Hitler was planning an ambitious expansionist agenda, which was not just about territorial gains but a racial war of destruction, culminating in genocide against Jews and other groups deemed inferior, as well as the destruction of communism.
• If this theory holds, appeasement was not a cause of war but made it easier for Hitler. He had his plans and 'blueprint' for action, making war inevitable eventually.
• Adam Tooze's interpretation is that Hitler feared delaying the inevitable war would allow Britain and France to catch up in rearmament.
• From 1936 to 1939, a significant portion of German industrial investment was directed towards war materials, with about a quarter of the industrial workforce engaged in military orders.
• However, the German armaments industry faced shortages of raw materials due to high foreign exchange needs for imports, and the overvalued Reichsmark made exports uncompetitive.
• Hitler believed that Germany's enemies, particularly those with Jewish backgrounds, had closed their borders to German exports, exacerbating the situation.
• Tooze explains that while Hitler wanted to choose the timing of a major war against Britain and France, events in early 1939 made such long-term plans impractical. With increasing cooperation among America, France, and Britain, he felt compelled to act quickly.
• A. J. P. Taylor's interpretation suggests that Hitler did not plan for a major war and anticipated at most a short conflict with Poland.
• Taylor viewed the occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 as an unintended consequence of events in Slovakia rather than a result of a long-term plan.
• Taylor believed that Hitler misjudged the British and French response and was drawn into war almost by accident when the Poles rejected his demands.
• Eberhard Jackel, a German historian, argued that Hitler aimed for a war of conquest and the elimination of Jews, with the ultimate goal of establishing a greater Germany through conquest, particularly at the expense of the Soviet Union.
• According to Jackel, Hitler did not initially envision a world war, but rather a localized war against Poland and the USSR.
• Alan Bullock believed that Hitler did not want a war with Britain and merely sought to expand in Europe without British interference, defeating Poland and the USSR in separate campaigns.

Conclusion

• Today, very few historians accept Taylor's view that Hitler had no long-term plans for war. While some of Hitler's successes were due to opportunism, there was a greater underlying strategy.
• Although he may not have had a detailed step-by-step plan, Hitler had a clear vision of a Germany-dominated Europe, achievable only through war.
• This is why rearmament was emphasized from 1936 onwards. Hitler believed that Germany's future could only be secured through war, and the timing and direction of that war were the main concerns.

World War II as a Total War

The Second World War was significantly different from previous conflicts, leading to its classification as a total war. This concept of total war marked a radical shift from traditional views of warfare. The reasons for considering World War II a total war include:

Mobilization of National Resources:

• In World War II, entire nations mobilized all their resources—material, intellectual, and moral—for the war effort.
• The enemy population, including its scientists, workers, and farmers, became legitimate targets of war.

Strategic Bombing:

• Strategic bombing was a key feature of total war, targeting enemy populations through attacks on economic sites and civilian morale.
• Bombing was indiscriminate, focusing not on military forces but on the society's capacity and willingness to support the war.

State Control:

• The state exercised unprecedented control over all aspects of life, subordinating them to wartime needs.
• Measures such as rationing of food, requisitioning of private homes, control of factories, and universal blackouts brought the war into the daily lives of every family.
• Everyone was compelled to contribute to the war effort in some way.

Global Scope and Strategy:

• The war was fought on a global scale, with battles occurring in diverse locations such as the Arctic, North Africa, Burma, New Guinea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Islands.
• The strategy was equally worldwide, involving various theaters of war across the globe.

Unparalleled Mobility:

• The Second World War was marked by extraordinary mobility in warfare.
• For instance, Hitler’s Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war,” rapidly defeated six nations within just three months, showcasing the speed and effectiveness of military operations during this conflict. 

The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) as a Prelude to World War II

Background to the War:

• In the 1930s, Spain was a country divided between right-wing Nationalist and left-wing Republican parties.
• The Nationalist party included monarchists, landowners, employers, the Roman Catholic Church, and the army.
• The Republicans comprised workers, trade unions, socialists, and peasants.
• The Great Depression had severely impacted Spain’s economy.
• In 1929, a military dictatorship that had ruled since 1923 collapsed. In 1931, the King abdicated, and the Republicans took power.
• The political rivals alternated in power, but the country remained unstable. In 1936, the army rebelled, leading to a civil war.

The Importance of Spain in Europe:

• If Spain fell to the Nationalists, France would be surrounded by Fascist powers, including Germany and Italy.
• This could weaken alliances among anti-Fascist nations and reduce resistance to Fascist expansion.
• Spain’s strategic naval bases on the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean were vital for controlling shipping and setting up military bases.

International Intervention

The Fascist Powers:

• Hitler(Germany) and Mussolini(Italy) sent troops and weapons to support the Nationalists.
• They aimed to prevent Spain from becoming a Soviet-backed stronghold and to establish Spain as a Fascist ally.
• A Fascist Spain would demonstrate the power of Fascism to the world.

The Democracies:

• France and Britain did not want Spain to fall to the Nationalists or the Republicans, as both outcomes were undesirable.
• They established a Non-Intervention Committee to block international aid to Spain.
• However, they could not prevent Germany and Italy from supporting the Nationalists, forcing the Republicans to rely on the Soviet Union for aid.

The Soviet Union:

• The USSR sent weapons and supplies to the Republicans but was less committed than Germany or Italy.
• Stalin provided just enough support to keep the Republicans fighting, preferring to keep Germany occupied in Spain.

The International Brigades:

• Young men and women from across Europe and the USA came to Spain to fight against Fascism.
• These International Brigades, consisting of idealists, socialists, and communists, fought for the Republicans.
• At times, up to 15,000 people were part of these brigades.

The Results:

• The Nationalist forces, better organized and equipped, won the war, capturing Madrid in March 1939.
• Spain became an ally of Hitler, strengthening his position in Europe.
• The war solidified the alliance between Italy and Germany, leading to the formation of the Rome-Berlin Axis.
• By disregarding the Non-Intervention Committee, Hitler demonstrated his strength in European affairs.

Prelude to World War II

• Use of Modern Technology and Tactics: The Spanish Civil War witnessed the introduction of new weapons and tactics, including early forms of Blitzkrieg, carpet bombing, and advanced tank warfare. Air power played a crucial role, marking the first time civilian targets were bombed extensively. These innovations foreshadowed their significant use in World War II.
• Ideological Warfare: The conflict was deeply ideological, pitting fascist Franco and his supporters against a left-leaning republic. The war mirrored the diverse ideologies of World War II, with fascists and conservatives backed by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the republic received support from the USSR, France, and the USA.
• Involvement of Multiple Countries: The Spanish Civil War saw significant foreign intervention on both sides. Franco was aided by Germany and Italy, while the Republicans received support mainly from the USSR and volunteers from around the world opposing fascism. This prefigured the multinational involvement seen in World War II.
• Other Factors: Britain and France led a political alliance of 27 nations promising an arms embargo on Spain. Despite signing the embargo, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union blatantly ignored it. The clandestine actions of European powers risked another world war. The success of fascist forces, aided by the democracies' appeasement, boosted fascism and set the stage for World War II. The Spanish Civil War served as a warning of future perils and heightened international tensions in Europe leading up to the global conflict.