World War II: An Overview

World War II, which lasted from 1939 to 1945, was a global conflict that involved many countries and was marked by rapid movements and complex strategies across different regions. Unlike the earlier World War I, this war saw significant battles in various parts of the world, including the Pacific, North Africa, Russia, Europe, and the Atlantic Ocean.

The war can be divided into four main phases:
Opening Moves (September 1939 to December 1940):

• At the end of September 1939, Germany and Russia had occupied Poland.
• After a brief period known as the ‘phoney war,’ German forces invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940.
• In May 1940, Germany attacked Holland, Belgium, and France, quickly defeating them and leaving Britain to face the Axis powers alone.
• Hitler attempted to bomb Britain into submission, but his plans were thwarted during the Battle of Britain (July to September 1940).
• During this time, Mussolini’s forces invaded Egypt and Greece.

Axis Offensive Widens (1941 to Summer 1942):

• The war expanded into a global conflict. Hitler, confident of defeating Britain, launched an invasion of Russia in June 1941, breaking the non-aggression pact.
• Japan attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in December 1941, bringing the USA into the war. They also occupied territories like the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma.
• During this phase, the Axis powers seemed unstoppable, although Italy was less successful than Germany and Japan.

Offensives Held in Check (Summer 1942 to Summer 1943):

• This phase saw significant battles where Axis forces faced defeats.
• In June 1942, the United States repelled a Japanese attack on Midway Island, causing significant losses for Japan.
• In October 1942, German advances towards Egypt were halted, and they were eventually driven out of North Africa.
• In Russia, the Germans reached Stalingrad by September 1942, but fierce Russian resistance led to the encirclement and surrender of the German army in February 1943.
• Air warfare continued, with both sides bombing enemy cities, and the British and Americans gradually overcoming the German U-boat threat at sea.

Axis Powers Defeated (July 1943 to August 1945):

• The combined strength and resources of the USA, USSR, and Britain gradually wore down the Axis powers.
• Italy was the first to be defeated, followed by the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944, which liberated France, Belgium, and Holland.
• Allied troops crossed the Rhine and captured Cologne, while in the east, the Russians pushed the Germans back and advanced on Berlin through Poland.
• Germany surrendered in May 1945, and Japan surrendered in August 1945 after the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• World War II was a significant and complex conflict that reshaped the world, involving many nations and various strategies across different regions.

Opening Moves: September 1939 to December 1940

Poland Defeated:

• The Poles were quickly defeated by the German Blitzkrieg(lightning war), which they were unprepared for.
• Despite their heroic efforts, Polish resistance was futile, with cavalry charges attempting to halt the advance of German tanks.
• Britain and France were unable to provide direct assistance to Poland due to France's slow mobilization and the difficulty of transporting troops effectively.
• When the Russians invaded eastern Poland, Polish resistance crumbled.
• On 29 September, Poland was divided between Germany and the USSR, as per the pact of August 1939.

The 'Phoney War':

• For the next five months, little occurred in the west.
• In the east, the Russians took control of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and invaded Finland in November 1939, forcing Finland to cede territory for better defense against potential western attacks.
• Hitler hoped that this pause would weaken the resolve of Britain and France, encouraging them to negotiate peace. This period of inactivity pleased Hitler's generals, who doubted the strength of the German army for a western attack.
• The American press referred to this time as the 'phoney war.'

Denmark and Norway Invaded, April 1940:

• In April 1940, Hitler's troops invaded Denmark and landed at major Norwegian ports, disrupting the perceived calm of the 'phoney war.'
• Control of Norway was crucial for the Germans because:
• Narvik was the primary outlet for Swedish iron-ore, essential for the German armaments industry.
• The British were interfering with this trade by laying mines in Norwegian waters, and the Germans feared a British takeover of some Norwegian ports.
• The fjords provided excellent naval bases for attacking Britain's transatlantic supply lines.
• The Germans succeeded because the Norwegians were caught by surprise, and local Nazis aided the invaders.
• This Norwegian campaign had significant consequences:
• Germany secured its bases and iron-ore supplies but lost three cruisers and ten destroyers, weakening its navy's effectiveness at Dunkirk.
• The campaign exposed the incompetence of Chamberlain’s government.
• Chamberlain was forced to resign, and Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister.
• Despite criticisms of Churchill's mistakes, he provided the necessary drive, urgency, and ability to unify his coalition cabinet.

Hitler Attacks Holland, Belgium, and France:

• On 10 May, Hitler launched simultaneous attacks on Holland, Belgium, and France, employing Blitzkrieg tactics for swift victories. The Dutch and Belgians surrendered quickly.
• Only Dunkirk remained in Allied hands.
• The events at Dunkirk were significant:
• Over a third of a million Allied troops were rescued to fight again, and Churchill used Dunkirk to boost British morale with the 'Dunkirk spirit.'
• However, it was a serious blow for the Allies, as the troops at Dunkirk lost all their arms and equipment, making it impossible for Britain to assist France effectively.
• The Germans advanced southwards:
• Paris was captured on 14 June, and France surrendered on 22 June.
• At Hitler's insistence, the armistice was signed at Compiegne, in the same railway coach used for the 1918 armistice.
• The Germans occupied northern France and the Atlantic coast, gaining valuable submarine bases, while the French army was demobilized.
• Unoccupied France was allowed to have its own government under Marshal Petain, but it lacked real independence and collaborated with the Germans.
• Britain's position became very precarious.

Why Was France Defeated So Quickly?

• The French were psychologically unprepared for war and deeply divided between right and left.
• The right, sympathetic to fascism, admired Hitler and sought an agreement with him.
• The communists, following the non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR, were also against the war.
• The prolonged inaction during the 'phoney war' allowed a peace party to emerge on the right, led by Laval, who argued against continuing the war after Poland's defeat.
• France faced the full brunt of a unified German offensive, unlike in 1914 when half of Germany's forces were directed against Russia.
• The French High Command relied on the Maginot Line, a defensive line from the Swiss to the Belgian frontiers. However, the line did not extend along the French-Belgian border, partly to avoid offending Belgium and because the French believed the Ardennes would be a strong barrier. This was where the Germans broke through.
• Although France had as many tanks and armored vehicles as Germany, they were spread across infantry divisions, slowing them to the pace of marching soldiers. In contrast, the Germans had fully mechanized armored divisions for greater speed.
• The German divisions were supported by combat planes, an area neglected by the French.
• French generals made critical errors:
• No effort was made to assist Poland by attacking Germany in the west in September 1939, a move that might have succeeded.
• Poor communication between the army and air force hindered air defense against German bombers.
• Military defeats gave the defeatist right the opportunity to pressure the government into accepting a ceasefire.

The Battle of Britain (12 August to 30 September 1940):

• The Battle of Britain was an aerial conflict in which Goering’s Luftwaffe sought to destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF) as a prelude to invading Britain.
• The Germans targeted harbors, radar stations, airfields, and munitions factories. In September, they escalated by bombing London, claiming it was retaliation for a British raid on Berlin.
• The RAF inflicted significant losses on the Luftwaffe. When it became evident that British air power was far from obliterated, Hitler called off the invasion.
• Several factors contributed to British success:
• The network of new radar stations provided early warnings of incoming German attacks.
• German bombers were inadequately armed and limited by range, only capable of staying aloft for about 90 minutes.
• The shift to bombing London was a strategic error, relieving pressure on critical airfields at a crucial moment.
• The Battle of Britain marked a significant turning point in the war for several reasons:
• It was the first instance of the Germans being halted, demonstrating their vulnerability.
• Britain remained in the fight, forcing Hitler to face the challenging situation of fighting on two fronts as he prepared to attack Russia.

Mussolini Invades Egypt, September 1940:

• Desiring to match Hitler's ambitions, Mussolini launched an invasion from the Italian colony of Libya into Egypt in September 1940, while another Italian army invaded Greece from Albania in October.
• However, the British quickly repelled the Italians from Egypt, pushing them deep into Libya and achieving victory over them.
• The Greeks also forced the Italians back and invaded Albania, making Mussolini a source of embarrassment for Hitler.

The Axis Offensive Expands: 1941 to Summer 1942

North Africa and Greece:

• In 1941, Hitler's initial actions were aimed at assisting his struggling ally, Italy. Together with the Italians, the Germans pushed the British out of Libya. By June 1942, German forces had advanced into Egypt.
• In April 1941, Hitler's forces invaded Greece, just a day after 60,000 British, Australian, and New Zealand troops had arrived to support the Greeks. The Germans quickly captured Athens, forcing the British to retreat.
• The campaigns in Greece had significant repercussions:
  • They were demoralizing for the Allies, who suffered about 36,000 casualties.
  • Many of the troops sent to Greece were pulled from North Africa, weakening British forces at a crucial time.
  • More critically, Hitler’s involvement in Greece and Yugoslavia (which was invaded simultaneously) may have delayed his planned attack on Russia. Had the invasion occurred in May, the Germans might have captured Moscow before winter set in.

German Invasion of Russia (Operation Barbarossa):

• The German invasion of Russia, known as Operation Barbarossa, commenced on June 22, 1941.
• Hitler's motives for this invasion were complex:
  • He feared a Russian attack on Germany while his forces were still engaged in the West.
  • He hoped that Japan would attack Russia in the Far East.
  • His deep-seated hatred for communism and his desire for Lebensraum(living space) were also driving factors. He aimed to lay the groundwork for his thousand-year Reich by annexing territory between the Vistula and the Urals.
• Some argue that the attack on Russia was Hitler's greatest blunder. However, for Hitler, the Russian campaign was not optional; it was central to Nazism and could not be postponed. It was a matter of 'now or never.'
• Hitler underestimated the duration of the conflict, believing that a swift victory was imminent. He told his generals, "We just have to kick in the door, and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down."
• The German attack was a massive three-pronged assault targeting:
  • The north towards Leningrad
  • The center towards Moscow
  • The south through the Ukraine
• Involving nearly 5.5 million troops, along with 3,550 tanks, supported by 5,000 aircraft and 47,000 artillery pieces, it was a large-scale operation.
• The Russians were caught off guard despite warnings from Britain and the USA about a potential German attack. Stalin had misplaced trust in the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact and was suspicious of information from the West. Additionally, the Russian military was still in the process of re-equipping, and many generals were inexperienced due to Stalin's purges.
• Despite initial successes, the German forces were unable to capture Leningrad and Moscow. They faced significant challenges from the heavy rains of October, which turned roads into mud, and the severe cold of November and December. The Germans were ill-prepared for winter warfare, as Hitler had anticipated a swift campaign concluding by autumn.

The United States Enters the War, December 1941:

• The United States was drawn into World War II following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, their naval base in Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
• Prior to this, the Americans had maintained a policy of isolation and neutrality, although they had provided substantial financial aid to Britain after the Lend-Lease Act in April 1941.
• Japan's motives for the attack on Pearl Harbor were linked to its economic challenges. The Japanese government feared a shortage of raw materials and eyed territories like Britain's Malaya and Burma, rich in rubber, oil, and tin, as well as the Dutch East Indies, abundant in oil. Since Britain and Holland were not in a position to defend their colonies, Japan prepared to attack, although they would have preferred to avoid conflict with the USA.
• Relations between the USA and Japan deteriorated over time. The Americans supported China, which was at war with Japan. When Japan secured permission from Vichy France to occupy French Indo-China and establish military bases there, President Roosevelt demanded their withdrawal and imposed an oil embargo on Japan on July 26, 1941.
• Prolonged negotiations ensued, with Japan seeking to lift the embargo. However, a deadlock was reached when the USA insisted on Japan's withdrawal from both Indo-China and China.
• With the rise of the aggressive General Tojo as Prime Minister on October 16, 1941, war appeared inevitable.
• There was no formal declaration of war from Japan; instead, 353 Japanese planes launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, destroying 350 aircraft and five battleships, killing or injuring around 3,700 personnel.
• The attack on Pearl Harbor had significant consequences:
  • Japan gained control over a vast expanse of the Pacific, capturing Malaya, Singapore, Hong Kong, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, and two American territories, Guam and Wake Island by May 1942.
  • It prompted Hitler to declare war on the United States.
• Hitler's decision to declare war on the USA was a major blunder. At that point, he could have avoided committing to war with the USA, allowing the Americans to focus on the Pacific theater. However, Germany had already assured Japan of support in the event of a war with the USA.
• Hitler believed that President Roosevelt would eventually declare war on Germany, so he wanted Germany to declare war first to demonstrate control over events to the German public. In reality, the US Congress was primarily focused on avenging Japan and was reluctant to engage in the European conflict. Hitler's declaration of war on the USA simplified Roosevelt's task.
• With the USA now in the war, Germany faced the immense potential of American resources. Along with the vast resources of the USSR and the British Commonwealth, the longer the war continued, the slimmer the chances of an Axis victory. Swift, decisive actions were essential before American contributions became fully effective.

Brutal Behavior by Germans and Japanese:

• The behavior of both Germans and Japanese in their occupied territories was marked by ruthlessness and brutality. The Nazis regarded the peoples of Eastern Europe as sub-human, destined to be slaves of the German master race.
• For the Jews, the plan was extermination. Millions were subjected to forced labor, torture in concentration camps, and mass killings, including nearly six million Jews.
• This approach was both amoral and unwise. In places like the Baltic states (Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia) and Ukraine, the Soviet government was highly unpopular, and better treatment could have turned the local populations into allies of the Germans.
• The Japanese also treated their prisoners of war and the Asian peoples harshly. Initially, many Asians, such as those in Indo-China, welcomed the Japanese, believing they were being liberated from European control.
• The Japanese aimed to organize their new territories into a vast economic empire known as the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, defended by sea and air power. However, the harsh treatment of local populations turned them against Japanese rule, leading to the rise of determined resistance movements, often with communist involvement.

The Offensives Held in Check: Summer 1942 to Summer 1943

During this period, Axis forces were defeated in three key areas and began to lose ground:

• Midway Island
• El Alamein
• Stalingrad

Midway Island, June 1942:

• At Midway Island in the Pacific, the Americans successfully repelled a powerful Japanese attack, despite facing heavier odds.
• The Americans had managed to break the Japanese radio code, allowing them to know exactly when and where the attack would be launched.
• Midway proved to be a crucial turning point in the battle for the Pacific. The loss of their carriers and strike planes severely weakened the Japanese.
• Gradually, under General MacArthur, the Americans began to recover the Pacific islands, starting in August 1942 with landings in the Solomon Islands.
• This process, known as ‘island hopping,’ was long and bitter, continuing through 1943 and 1944.

El Alamein, October 1942:

• At El Alamein in Egypt, the British Army defeated Germany's Afrika Korps.
• The victory at El Alamein was another turning point in the war for several reasons:
• It prevented Egypt and the Suez Canal from falling into German hands.
• It ended the possibility of a link-up between Axis forces in the Middle East and those in the Ukraine.
• It led to the complete expulsion of Axis forces from North Africa.
• It encouraged British troops to land in the French territories of Morocco and Algeria, threatening the Germans and Italians from the west.
• Trapped in Tunisia, a total of 275,000 Germans and Italians were forced to surrender in May 1943, leaving the Allies well-placed for an invasion of Italy.
• The desert war had been a serious drain on German resources, which could have been used in Russia, where they were badly needed.

Stalingrad:

• At Stalingrad, the southern prong of the German invasion of Russia was finally checked. The Germans had penetrated deeply through the Crimea and reached Stalingrad at the end of August 1942.
• Although they destroyed much of the city, the Russians refused to surrender. In November, the Russians counter-attacked fiercely, trapping the Germans whose supply lines were overstretched.
• With retreat cut off, the German commander had no choice but to surrender with 94,000 men on February 2, 1943.
• If Stalingrad had fallen, Russia’s supply route for oil from the Caucasus would have been cut off.
• The defeat at Stalingrad was a catastrophe for the Germans. It shattered the myth of their invincibility and boosted Russian morale. The Russians followed up with more counter-attacks, forcing the Germans to keep retreating.
• It was now only a matter of time before the Germans, heavily outnumbered and short of tanks and guns, were driven out of Russia.

The Defeat of the Axis Powers: From July 1943 to August 1945

The Fall of Italy:

• The collapse of Italy marked the beginning of the Axis powers' downfall. British and American forces landed in Sicily on July 10, 1943, capturing the island swiftly.
• This invasion led to the ousting of Mussolini, who was dismissed by the king. Mussolini's successor, Marshal Badoglio, signed an armistice and switched Italy's allegiance to the Allied side.
• However, the Germans were determined to maintain control over Italy. They quickly sent troops to occupy Rome and northern Italy. Despite this, Allied forces continued their advance, capturing Rome.
• Italy's elimination contributed to the Allied victory in several ways:
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  • Italy provided air bases for Allied bombing campaigns against Germany in Central Europe and the Balkans.
  • German troops in Italy were occupied, preventing them from reinforcing the Eastern Front against the Russians.

Operation Overlord, 6 June 1944:

• Operation Overlord, the invasion of France (also known as the Second Front), commenced on D-Day, June 6, 1944.
• The timing was deemed appropriate following Italy's defeat, the control of U-boats, and the establishment of Allied air superiority.
• The Russians had been urging the Allies to open this Second Front since 1941 to alleviate pressure on the Eastern Front.
• The landings occurred from both sea and air onto the beaches of Normandy. Despite strong German resistance, by the end of the first week, 326,000 men, along with tanks and heavy lorries, had successfully landed.
• Within weeks, most of northern France was liberated, with Paris being freed on August 25. In Belgium, Brussels and Antwerp were liberated in September.

'Unconditional Surrender':

• As German forces retreated in France and Russia, there were hopes on both sides for an armistice followed by a negotiated peace, similar to the end of the First World War.
• However, Hitler consistently spoke of a fight to the death, and significant differences existed among the Allies regarding peace negotiations.
• In January 1943, President Roosevelt declared that the Allies were fighting for the 'unconditional surrender of Germany, Italy, and Japan.'
• This announcement dismayed Churchill and many of his staff, who believed it undermined the possibility of a negotiated peace.
• On the contrary, Nazi leaders welcomed Roosevelt's announcement, seeing it as a rallying cry for continued resistance.
• Many American leaders, including General Eisenhower, opposed the idea of 'unconditional surrender,' fearing it would prolong the war and result in unnecessary casualties.
• Despite this, Roosevelt remained firm in his stance, fearing that any change might be perceived as weakness by the Axis powers.
• The policy continued until Roosevelt's death in April 1945 and was upheld by his successor, Harry S. Truman. No attempts were made to negotiate peace with Germany or Japan until their unconditional surrender.
• Historian Thomas Fleming suggests that many lives could have been saved if the prospect of a negotiated peace had encouraged German resistance to overthrow Hitler. He viewed the unconditional surrender policy as 'an ultimatum written in blood.'

The Assault on Germany:

• With the success of the Second Front, the Allies began preparations for the invasion of Germany itself.
• Expecting a swift collapse of German forces, they were instead met with fierce resistance and further disagreements between British and American commanders.
• Some Allied leaders wanted a rapid advance to capture Berlin before the Russians, while General Eisenhower favored a cautious approach along a broad front.
• By early 1945, Germany was being invaded from both the east and west. The British aimed to reach Berlin first, but Eisenhower insisted on a steady pace.
• Ultimately, Berlin fell to Soviet forces in April 1945, leading to Hitler's suicide and Germany's surrender.
• Despite the inevitable defeat, many Germans continued to fight to the bitter end in 1945. The lack of a popular uprising to force peace negotiations can be attributed to several factors.
• Historian Adam Tooze suggests that a significant portion of German society was deeply committed to the war effort and contributed to the initiatives that enabled Germany to continue fighting.
• Ian Kershaw argues that the nature of the Nazi regime and Hitler's belief in a life-and-death struggle for survival and supremacy drove the relentless resistance.
• Hitler's irrational perspective left no room for compromise—Germany had to be either victorious or utterly destroyed.
• After the war, many Germans blamed the Allied policy of 'unconditional surrender' for their determination to fight on.
• Fear of the enemy, particularly the Russians, and fear of Nazi officials also played significant roles in sustaining the fight.
• Kershaw contends that the Nazi regime was not solely based on popular consent, and fear was a powerful motivator for continued resistance.

The Defeat of Japan:

• On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, resulting in the deaths of approximately 84,000 people, with many more suffering from radiation poisoning.
• Three days later, another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing around 40,000 people. Following these bombings, the Japanese government surrendered.
• The decision to drop the atomic bombs remains one of the most controversial actions of the war.
• President Truman justified the bombings by claiming they saved American lives, as the war might have continued for another year otherwise.
• Many historians argue that the bombings were unnecessary, given that Japan had already indicated a willingness to negotiate peace in July through Russia.
• One theory suggests that the primary motivation behind the bombings was to end the fighting quickly before the Russians, who had promised to enter the war against Japan, could gain significant territory in Japan.
• The bombings also served as a demonstration of the United States' immense power to the Soviet Union.

Allied Bombing of German and Japanese Cities

• The Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities during World War II was a highly controversial aspect of the conflict. The bombings were a response to earlier German air raids on British cities, including London, from 1940 to 1941. These German attacks had diminished when Germany invaded Russia, diverting the Luftwaffe's focus.
• In retaliation, the British and Americans launched what they termed a "strategic air offensive." This involved large-scale attacks on military and industrial targets to disrupt the German war effort. Some raids seemed aimed at breaking civilian morale, such as the devastating bombing of Dresden in February 1945, where around 50,000 people died in a single night.
• In early 1945, the United States began intense bombing campaigns against Japan from bases in the Mariana Islands. One notable raid on Tokyo in March resulted in the deaths of 80,000 people and the destruction of a quarter of the city.
• There has been significant debate regarding the effectiveness of the bombings in hastening the Axis defeat. While they caused immense civilian casualties and damaged morale, some argued that such bombing was morally wrong due to the high number of innocent lives lost. Others defended the bombings as a necessary part of total war, considering the actions of Germany in Eastern Europe and Japan in their occupied territories as justification for the "price of peace."
• The impact of the bombings was severe; synthetic oil production plummeted, leading to critical fuel shortages. By June 1945, Japan was in a similar state of desperation. The Allied strategic air offensive was a crucial factor in the Axis defeat. It not only crippled fuel and armaments production and disrupted railway communications but also forced the diversion of many aircraft from the Eastern Front, aiding the Soviet advance into Germany.

Ideological Fronts in the War

Ideology was not only a factor in tensions between nations, but ideological conflict as well as national conflict also caused tension.

In the formation of rival groups, a common ideology was important, but the most powerful factor was national interest.

Conflict between Democracy and Dictatorship:

• After World War I, there was an apparent triumph of liberal democracy across Europe.
• With the fall of three old royal dynasties in Europe (Hohenzollern, Hapsburg, and Romanoff), democratic constitutions were adopted by almost all countries in Europe.
• However, Europe soon faced a complete denial of democratic ideals and institutions.

Two types of dictatorship emerged:

• Communism, as seen in Russia
• Fascism and Nazism, as seen in Italy and Germany

All of these regimes united in their denunciation of fundamental democratic principles such as individual freedom, freedom of speech and press, and the right of the people to participate in government.
The rapid spread of these ideas posed a serious challenge to Western Europe.

Struggle between Fascism and Communism:

• A triangular contest ensued among the ideological forces of Communism, Fascism, and Democracy.

War Aims of the Allies:

• When World War II broke out, Mussolini, who was Hitler’s ally in the war, framed the ideological challenge by stating, “The struggle between two worlds can permit no compromise. Either We or They.”
• Roosevelt and Churchill declared the objective of the war to be the “unconditional surrender” of the Axis powers. They emphasized that “unconditional surrender means not the destruction of the German populace, nor of the Italian or Japanese populace, but the destruction of the philosophy in Germany, Italy, and Japan.”
• Thus, the ideology of the Allies stood in stark contrast to that of the Axis powers.

In the famous Atlantic Charter of 1941, President Roosevelt summarized the war aims of the Allies as consisting of the “Four Freedoms”:

• Freedom from fear
• Freedom from want
• Freedom of worship
• Political freedom

Chamberlain stated, “We are fighting against brute force. I am certain that right will prevail.” Hitler, on the other hand, refused to surrender and declared, “No means is left to me than to meet force with force.”

Why Did the Axis Powers Lose the War?

The reasons for the Axis powers' defeat can be summarized as follows:

• Shortage of raw materials
• Allies learning from mistakes
• Axis powers overextending themselves
• Combined resources of the USA, USSR, and British Empire
• Tactical mistakes by Axis powers

Shortage of Raw Materials:

• Italy and Japan had to import supplies, and Germany faced shortages in rubber, cotton, nickel, and, after mid-1944, oil.
• These shortages were not necessarily fatal, but success depended on a swift end to the war, which initially seemed likely due to the speed and efficiency of the German Blitzkrieg.
• The survival of Britain in 1940 was crucial as it kept the western front alive until the USA entered the war.

Allies Learning from Mistakes:

• By 1942, the Allies learned to counter Blitzkrieg attacks and recognized the importance of air support and aircraft carriers.
• They built up air and naval superiority, winning battles in the Atlantic and the Pacific, gradually starving their enemies of supplies.

Axis Powers Overextending Themselves:

• Hitler underestimated that a war against Britain would involve her empire, spreading his troops too thinly across multiple fronts.
• Japan also overextended itself, with limited capacity to hold its gains as a small island state with restricted industrial power.
• Mussolini’s incompetence further drained Hitler’s resources.

Combined Resources of the USA, USSR, and British Empire:

• The vast resources of the USA, USSR, and British Empire meant that the longer the war lasted, the less chance the Axis had of victory.
• Russia moved its industry east of the Ural Mountains, continuing production despite German occupation of western territories.
• At its peak, the American war machine could produce over 70,000 tanks and 120,000 aircraft annually, far surpassing German and Japanese capabilities.

Tactical Mistakes by Axis Powers:

• The Japanese focused too much on battleships instead of aircraft carriers.
• Hitler should have defeated Britain before invading the USSR, which forced Germany into a two-front war.
• German plans for the invasion of Britain were vague and underestimated British strength.
• Britain’s survival allowed it to become a base for later Allied operations, such as the D-Day landings.
• Hitler failed to plan for a winter campaign in Russia and underestimated Soviet resourcefulness and determination.
• As German forces advanced into Soviet territory, their supply and communication lines became increasingly vulnerable.
• Hitler’s insistence on avoiding retreats led to disasters, particularly in Stalingrad, and left German troops exposed in Normandy (1944).
• These factors contributed to hastening defeat, as scarce resources were wasted.
• Hitler’s declaration of war on the USA after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor was a significant mistake.
• Another serious error was Hitler’s focus on producing V-rockets instead of developing jet aircraft, which could have restored German air superiority and prevented devastating bomb attacks in 1944 and 1945.

Nazi Racial Policy:

• Nazi treatment of Jews, gypsies, and homosexuals in occupied territories of the USSR alienated many conquered peoples who, with better treatment, could have been persuaded to fight against the Stalinist regime.
• Soviet rule was particularly unpopular in Ukraine.

Effects of the War

Enormous Destruction:
There was enormous destruction of lives, homes, industries and communications in Europe and Asia.

• Almost 40 million people were killed: well over half of them were Russians, 6 million were Poles, 4 million Germans, 2 million Chinese and 2 million Japanese. Britain and the USA got off comparatively lightly.
• A further 21 million people had been uprooted from their homes: some had been taken to Germany to work as slave labourers, and around seven million of these were still in Germany; some had been put into concentration camps, and some had been forced to flee from invading armies. The victorious powers were left with the problem of how to repatriate them.
• Large parts of Germany, especially her industrial areas and many major cities, lay in ruins.
• Much of western Russia had been completely devastated, and some 25 million people were homeless.
• France had suffered badly too: taking into account the destruction of housing, factories, railways, mines and livestock, almost 50 per cent of total French wealth had been lost. In Italy, where damage was very serious in the south, the figure was over 30 per cent.
• Japan suffered heavy damage and a high death toll from bombings.
• The most notorious was the Holocaust– the deliberate murder in extermination camps of over five million Jews and hundreds of thousands of non-Jews, mainly in Poland and Russia.

No All-Inclusive Peace Settlement:

• This was different from the end of the First World War, when an all-inclusive settlement was negotiated at Versailles. This was mainly because the distrust which had re-emerged between the USSR and the west in the final months of the war made agreement on many points impossible.
• However, a number of separate treaties were signed:
• Italy lost her African colonies and gave up her claims to Albania and Abyssinia(Ethiopia).
• The USSR took the eastern section of Czechoslovakia, and the area round Lake Ladoga from Finland, and held on to Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, which they had occupied in 1939.
• Romania recovered northern Transylvania, which the Hungarians had occupied during the war. Trieste, claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia, was declared a free territory protected by the United Nations Organization.
• Later, at San Francisco(1951), Japan agreed to surrender all territory acquired during the previous 90 years, which included a complete withdrawal from China.
• However, the Russians refused to agree to any settlement over Germany and Austria, except that they should be occupied by Allied troops and that East Prussia should be divided between Russia and Poland.

The War Stimulated Important Social Changes:

• In addition to the population movements during the war, once hostilities were over, many millions of people were forced to move from their homes.
• The worst cases were probably in the areas taken from Germany by Russia and Poland, and in the German-speaking areas in Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia.
• About ten million Germans were forced to leave and make their way to West Germany so that no future German government would be able to claim those territories.
• In some countries, especially the USSR and Germany, extensive urban redevelopment took place as ruined cities had to be rebuilt.
• In Britain the war stimulated, among other things, the Beveridge Report(1942), a plan for introducing a Welfare State.

Changing Roles for Women

• The wartime economy presented women and minorities like African-Americans, Hispanics with new job opportunities.
• The domestic war effort in countries like United States swept millions of women into the workforce.
• Women worked in the war industries, in factories, and on farms. They drove trucks, provided logistic support for soldiers, and entered professional areas of work that were previously the domain of men. They enlisted as nurses serving on the front lines, and there was a great increase in the number of women serving for the military.
• After the War, women started demanding equal rights with men which led to several women movements.

African Americans in WWII:

• The availability of new job opportunities in American factories also attracted African Americans. African Americans migrated to major manufacturing areas in the North as well as in the West.
• Despite racism and segregation in the U.S. military, more than two and a half million African American men registered in the military draft, with more than 1 million serving in the armed forces during World War II.
• While segregation persisted in the armed forces, some change came on the home front. A. Philip Randolph, an African-American labor leader, presented President Roosevelt with a list of grievances regarding the civil rights of African-American workers in the nation’s defense industry. Randolph planned a huge protest. Fearing such a protest would undermine wartime unity, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order banning discriminatory employment practices in war-related work.

The War Caused the Production of Nuclear Weapons:

The first ever use of these weapons, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, demonstrated their horrifying powers of destruction. The world was left under the threat of a nuclear war that might well have destroyed the entire planet. Some people argue that this acted as a deterrent, making both sides in the Cold War so frightened of the consequences that they were deterred or discouraged from fighting each other.

Europe's Domination of the Rest of the World Ended

• The four western European states which had played a leading role in world affairs for most of the first half of the twentieth century were now much weaker than before.
• Germany was devastated and divided,France and Italy were on the verge of bankruptcy; although Britain seemed strong and victorious, with her empire intact, the cost of the war had been ruinous.
• The USA had helped to keep Britain going during the war by sending supplies, but these had to be paid for later.
• As soon as the war was over, the new US president,Truman, abruptly stopped all further help, leaving Britain in a sorry state: she had overseas debts of over £3000 million, many of her foreign investments had been sold off, and her ability to export goods had been much reduced.
• She was forced to ask for another loan from the USA, which was given at a high rate of interest; the country was therefore closely and uncomfortably dependent on the USA.

Emergence of the Superpowers and Cold War

• The USA and the USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations in the world, and they were no longer as isolated as they had been before the war.
• The USA had suffered relatively little from the war and had enjoyed great prosperity from supplying the other Allies with war materials and food.
• The Americans had the world’s largest navy and air force and they controlled the atomic bomb.
• The USSR, though severely weakened, still had the largest army in the world.
• Both countries were highly suspicious of each other’s intentions now that the common enemies, Germany and Japan, had been defeated.
• The rivalry of these two superpowers in the Cold War was the most important feature of international relations for almost half a century after 1945, and was a constant threat to world peace.

Decolonization

• The war encouraged the movement towards decolonization.
• The defeats inflicted on Britain, Holland and France by Japan, and the Japanese occupation of their territories –Malaya, Singapore and Burma(British),French lndo-China and the Dutch East Indies – destroyed the tradition of European superiority and invincibility.
• It could hardly be expected that, having fought to get rid of the Japanese, the Asian peoples would willingly return to European rule. Gradually they achieved full independence, though not without a struggle in many cases.
• This in turn intensified demands for independence among the peoples of Africa and the Middle East, and in the 1960s the result was a large array of new states.
• The leaders of many of these newly emerging nations met in conference at Algiers in 1973 and made it clear that they regarded themselves as a Third World. By this they meant that they wished to remain neutral or non-aligned in the struggle between the other two worlds – communism and capitalism.
• Usually poor and under-developed industrially, the new nations were often intensely suspicious of the motives of both communism and capitalism, and they resented their own economic dependence on the world’s wealthy powers.

The United Nations Organization (UNO):

This emerged as the successor to the League of Nations. Its main aim was to try to maintain world peace, and on the whole it has been more successful than its unfortunate predecessor.

Other Effects:

• Fall of axis power representing radical nationalist and militarist power (Germany, Italy and Japan)
• Division of Europe(Eastern and Western)
• Division of Germany
• Europe became main platform of the cold war
• World became bipolar(USA and USSR)
• Division of Korea
• Rise of Third World and NAM
• Rise of Bretton-Woods institutions
• Rise of GATT
• Beginning of new age of Human Rights- as a result of Human Rights Declaration by UN in 1948
• Progress in science.