Nehru’s Foreign Policy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Jawaharlal Nehru: Architect of Modern India's Foreign Policy:

• Architect of Modern India: Nehru is seen as the key figure in shaping modern India, particularly in foreign policy after Independence.
• Control Over Foreign Affairs: He tightly controlled foreign policy decisions, often making them himself after consulting advisors.
• Ideological Framework: Nehru's policies were influenced by ideologies like Panchsheel, nonalignment, colonialism, and racism.
• Integration of Domestic and Foreign Policy: He linked domestic and foreign politics, shaping India's international stance.
• Non-Alignment Movement: Nehru aimed for India to remain neutral during the Cold War, leading to the founding of the Non-Alignment Movement.
• Influences: Nehru was influenced by socialism and Gandhi's principles but sought an independent path in foreign policy.
• Faith in Goodwill: Nehru believed in goodwill in international relations, though this was challenged by the 1962 Chinese attack.
• Asian Solidarity: Nehru promoted Asian nations determining their own political futures, exemplified by the Asian Relations Conference in 1947.

Common Wealth Nations

• Nehru maintained positive relations with the British Empire.
• Under the London Declaration, India agreed to join the Commonwealth of Nations when it became a republic in January 1950, accepting the British monarch as a symbol of the free association of independent nations.
• The Commonwealth nations recognized India's membership, despite domestic criticism of Nehru's support for the Commonwealth.
• Nehru believed in peaceful alliances and resolving international issues through discussions, even after the British government's complicated handling of India's independence and the subsequent partition.
• He emphasized India's willingness to cooperate with former adversaries on an honorable and free basis, aiming for mutual benefit and global good.
• During the Constituent Assembly debates on 16 May 1949, Nehru explained India's decision to join the Commonwealth as mutually beneficial, allowing countries the freedom to chart their own paths while promoting cooperation for global good.

London Declaration

• London Declaration: Issued during the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Conference regarding India’s membership after becoming a republic. Date: April 28, 1949.
• Significance: Marked the beginning of the modern Commonwealth.
• Main Provisions:
  • Allowed admission and retention of non-Dominion members, including republics and indigenous monarchies.
  • Changed the name from British Commonwealth to Commonwealth of Nations, reflecting a significant shift.

Bandung Conference (Afro-Asian Conference), 1955

Bandung Conference (1955):

• The Bandung Conference was a significant gathering of Asian and African states, organized by Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, and Pakistan. It took place from April 18 to 24, 1955, in Bandung, Indonesia. Delegates from 29 countries, representing over half of the world's population, participated in the conference.
• The conference aimed to address key issues such as economic and cultural cooperation, respect for human rights and self-determination, and the promotion of world peace and cooperation.

The five sponsoring countries were motivated by several concerns:

• Dissatisfaction with Western powers: The sponsors felt that Western nations were not consulting them on important decisions affecting Asia.
• Concern over US-China tensions: They were worried about the growing tension between the People's Republic of China and the United States.
• Desire for better Sino-Western relations: They wanted to establish stronger foundations for peaceful relations between China, themselves, and the Western powers.
• Opposition to colonialism: Particularly, they were against French colonial influence in North Africa.
• Indonesia's territorial dispute: Indonesia aimed to promote its case in the dispute with the Netherlands over western New Guinea.
• A major topic of debate at the conference was whether to criticize Soviet policies in Eastern Europe and Central Asia alongside Western colonialism. Ultimately, a consensus was reached to condemn "colonialism in all of its manifestations," implicitly criticizing both the Soviet Union and the West.
• Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru played a significant role in the conference, promoting the policy of non-alignment.
• The conference concluded with the adoption of a 10-point declaration on the promotion of world peace and cooperation. This declaration was based on the principles of the United Nations charter and Nehru's Five Principles, which included mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, nonaggression, noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. It was adopted unanimously by the participating countries.

Non-Alignment Movement

• Jawaharlal Nehru successfully formed the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) by aligning with leaders like Tito, Nasser, Soekarno, U Nu, and Nkrumah.
• Nehru was a strong advocate for pacifism and the United Nations, promoting the policy of non-alignment to maintain neutrality between the US and USSR.
• Non-alignment aimed to ensure world peace while allowing nations to pursue their interests without conflict.
• This policy aligned with India's domestic needs for democracy and socialism.

Indus Water Treaty, 1960

• In 1947, when British India was divided, the new border between India and West Pakistan disrupted the irrigation systems of the Bari Doab and the Sutlej Valley Project, which had originally been planned as a single system.
• While India received the headworks (the infrastructure for diverting water), the canals that distributed the water ran through Pakistan. This division led to problems with water supply in some areas of Pakistan.
• The resulting dispute persisted for several years until it was resolved through the mediation of the World Bank. This led to the signing of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960 between India and Pakistan.
• The treaty, signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960, by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan, was a response to Pakistan's concerns that India could potentially cause droughts and famines in Pakistan by controlling the rivers, especially during times of conflict.
• Under the Indus Waters Treaty, India was allocated the three eastern rivers of the Indus basin—the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej—while Pakistan was given the rights to the three western rivers—the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab (with a small exception for Jammu and Kashmir).
• Since the treaty was ratified in 1960, India and Pakistan have avoided engaging in water wars. Disputes have been resolved through legal means outlined in the treaty, which is regarded as one of the most successful water-sharing agreements globally.

Policy on Palestine and Israel

• In 1947, India did not support the United Nations' plan to partition Palestine.
• In 1949, India voted against Israel's admission to the United Nations and did not officially recognize Israel as a nation until 1950.
• Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi were pro-Palestine. They opposed the creation of Israel because they were against the establishment of countries based on religion.
• In a 1938 editorial, Gandhi expressed sympathy for the Jews but questioned the idea of a Jewish national home in Palestine, advocating instead for the Jews to live where they were born and earned their livelihood.
• Despite its initial opposition, India recognized Israel as a nation in 1950.
• In 1954, Prime Minister Nehru refused to support a resolution that deemed the creation of Israel a violation of international law.
• While the official Indian stance was largely supported by the public, some Hindu nationalist groups backed the creation of Israel. For example, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar viewed Israel's establishment positively and criticized India's opposition at the UN.
• India formalized diplomatic relations with Israel in 1991, although informal ties had existed earlier, including visits from figures like Moshe Dayan during Morarji Desai's prime ministership.

India’s Role in Korea War

• Nehru was worried that the Korean War might escalate into World War III, potentially involving atomic bombs, especially since the Soviet Union had developed nuclear weapons. This situation could drag India into the conflict, particularly with China as a neighboring country.
• To address these concerns, India attempted to mediate and pacify all parties involved in the conflict.
• The New York Times noted the significance of Nehru's role in the struggle for Asia, suggesting that the outcome could hinge on his actions.
• When the Korean War broke out, India condemned North Korea as the aggressor and supported United Nations Security Council resolutions 82 and 83. However, India did not back resolution 84, which called for military assistance to South Korea, reflecting its nonaligned stance.
• Instead of sending armed forces as requested by the UN, India sent a medical unit to Korea as a humanitarian gesture. India's medical services during this time are still fondly remembered by both North and South Korea.
• In 1947, India chaired the UN Commission that monitored elections in undivided Korea.
• After the Korean War, India played a crucial role as the chair of the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, handling prisoners of war from both sides and interviewing them to determine their repatriation wishes. India dispatched a 6,000-member Custodial Force to Korea for this purpose.
• Despite its efforts, India did not gain much from the war and faced criticism from all sides. Its relationship with the United States deteriorated for not siding with it, leading the US to provide military aid to Pakistan.
• However, the war elevated Nehru's global prestige, solidifying his image as a leading statesman. For the rest of his life, he was involved in major global discussions.

Not so Pacifist Nehru

• Despite being a pacifist,Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru recognized the need for a strong defense in 1947 due to India's political and geo-strategic realities.
• While inaugurating the National Defence Academy in 1949, Nehru emphasized the importance of a well-equipped military, stating that even a proponent of non-violence like Mahatma Gandhi acknowledged the necessity of being prepared for conflict.
• Nehru laid the groundwork for India's nuclear program by establishing the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 and appointing Dr. Homi J. Bhabha to oversee nuclear affairs.
• There was an unwritten agreement between Nehru and Bhabha regarding nuclear policy, with Bhabha focusing on the technical aspects while Nehru handled international relations.
• Nehru aimed to develop India's nuclear capabilities to establish regional superiority, particularly over Pakistan, and believed in proving India's strength before advocating for global disarmament.
• He also initiated studies on the effects of nuclear explosions and advocated for the abolition of nuclear weapons, fearing that an arms race would lead to unsustainable militarization for developing countries.

Kashmir Issue

• Kashmir remained a constant challenge for Nehru, and he struggled to achieve a successful negotiation with Pakistan regarding the region.
• Nehru attempted to push for negotiations through the United Nations but faced obstacles.
• In 1948, Nehru had promised a plebiscite in Kashmir under UN supervision. However, due to Pakistan's failure to withdraw troops as per the UN resolution and Nehru's growing distrust of the UN, he decided against holding the plebiscite in 1953.
• His approach to Kashmir and the integration of the state into India was often defended at the UN by his aide, Krishna Menon, a skilled diplomat known for his passionate speeches.
• In 1957, Menon gave an unprecedented eight-hour speech at the UN Security Council, defending India's position on Kashmir. This speech remains the longest in the council's history.
• Nehru ordered the arrest of Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah in 1953, suspecting him of separatist intentions, despite having previously supported him. Abdullah was replaced by Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad.
• On April 8, 1964, the State Government dropped all charges against Sheikh Abdullah in the “Kashmir Conspiracy Case.”
• After his release, Sheikh Abdullah reconciled with Nehru, who asked him to facilitate communication between India and Pakistan.
• Nehru hoped Sheikh Abdullah would persuade Pakistani President Ayub Khan to come to New Delhi for talks to resolve the Kashmir issue.
• However, Nehru's sudden death in 1964 halted this diplomatic process.

Kashmir Conspiracy Case

Liaquat–Nehru Pact or Delhi Pact, 1950

Communal Riots and Minority Status:

• At the time of independence,many communal riots broke out in different areas of India and Pakistan. These riots had a significant impact on the status of minorities in the two nations.
• Despite the migration,almost half of the Muslims in the Sub-continent remained in India, and a sizable number of Hindus were left in Pakistan. The people and governments of their respective countries viewed them with suspicion, and these minorities struggled to prove their loyalty.
• The tension between India and Pakistan escalated to the point where it seemed they might go to war again within the first three years of independence. To address this issue, the Delhi Pact was established.

Delhi Pact Overview:

• The Delhi Pact was a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan.
• It allowed refugees to return safely to manage their property.
• It mandated the return of abducted women and looted property.
• Forced conversions were not recognized, and minority rights were upheld.

Signing of the Treaty:

• The treaty was signed in New Delhi on April 8, 1950, by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India and Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan of Pakistan.
• It was the result of six days of discussions aimed at ensuring minority rights in both countries following the Partition of India and preventing another war.

Aim of the Pact

• The pact aimed to provide a ‘bill of rights’ for minorities in India and Pakistan.
• It sought to:
  • Alleviate fears of religious minorities on both sides.
  • Promote communal peace.
  • Create an environment for resolving other differences between the two countries.

Establishment of Minority Commissions

• Minority commissions were established in both countries as part of the pact.
• These commissions were tasked with ensuring and protecting the rights of minorities in India and Pakistan.

Nehru-Noon Treaty, 1958

• After the partition of India in 1947, there were significant challenges related to boundary demarcation and enclaves between India and Pakistan.
• To address these issues, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani Prime Minister Feroze Khan Noon reached an agreement in 1958, known as the Nehru-Noon Agreement.

Difficulties in Boundary Demarcation:

• Surveyors from India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) attempted to delineate the international boundary based on the lines drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
• However, they encountered major discrepancies and challenges, leading to the need for the Bagge Awards on January 26, 1950.

Objectives of the 1958 Agreement:

• The 1958 Agreement aimed to achieve several key objectives, particularly in the eastern sector of the boundary.
• One major goal was to resolve differences that hindered boundary demarcation and address the issue of Union No.12 in Southern Berubari.

Union No.12 Issue:

• Union No.12 was a contentious area where the boundaries drawn by Radcliffe indicated it belonged to India, but his written description suggested it belonged to Pakistan.
• The predominantly Hindu population of Union No.12 opposed the territory being ceded to Pakistan.

Division of Union No.12:

• Under the 1958 Agreement, it was decided to divide Union No.12 roughly in half.
• The southern half, along with two enclaves, would go to Pakistan, while the northern half would remain with India.

Resolution of Enclave Issues:

• The Agreement also aimed to resolve the problem of enclaves, with 113 Indian enclaves inside East Pakistan and 53 East Pakistan enclaves inside India.
• It was decided that the enclaves would be merged with the country they were located in.

Territory Exchange:

• The Agreement included provisions for exchanging territories based on demarcation.
• Territories found to be wrongfully held (under adverse possession) would be transferred to the country they rightfully belonged to.

Implementation Challenges:

• Despite the agreements on enclave exchanges and the transfer of the southern half of South Berubari Union No.12 to East Pakistan, the Nehru-Noon Agreement faced implementation challenges.
• Litigation by Indian claimants asserted that the entire Union of South Berubari was Indian territory at the time of the Indian Constitution's enforcement.

Supreme Court Ruling:

• The legal dispute eventually reached the Supreme Court of India.
• The Court ruled that the Indian Constitution needed to be amended to exclude the southern half of South Berubari Union No.12 and the Indian enclaves inside East Pakistan to fulfill the Agreement.

Constitutional Amendment:

• In 1960, the Indian Constitution was amended (9th Amendment) to facilitate the exchanges stipulated in the Nehru-Noon Agreement.
• However, the envisioned exchanges did not occur as planned.

China Crisis

• Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty.
• Mutual non-aggression.
• Mutual non-interference in internal affairs.
• Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.
• Peaceful co-existence.

1955: China began patrolling parts of the Indian border, leading to negotiations.
1959-1961: India adopted the "Forward Policy," establishing military outposts in disputed areas.
1962: China launched a full-scale invasion, catching India by surprise. The Indian military was unprepared, and both the USA and Soviet Union provided limited assistance.
Outcome: India lost the conflict, with China retaining Aksai Chin and withdrawing to pre-war lines in the eastern zone.
Impact on Foreign Policy: Nehru shifted India’s approach to international relations, realizing the importance of military strength and not relying solely on peaceful negotiations.

• India became more skeptical of China and its military intentions.
• Nehru's earlier hopes for a strong India-China alliance were diminished.
• Support for Tibetan refugees and revolutionaries increased.
• An elite Indian-trained "Tibetan Armed Force" was raised, serving in later conflicts with Pakistan.

Nehru’s other foreign policies

• Jawaharlal Nehru's foreign policy faced challenges due to Chinese assertiveness over border disputes.
• After unsuccessful negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to invade Portuguese-controlled Goa, Daman, and Diu in 1961.
• The invasion, known as Operation Vijay, involved air, sea, and land strikes for over 36 hours.
• It resulted in a decisive victory for India and the incorporation of Goa, Daman, and Diu into the Republic of India.
• The conflict received mixed reactions globally. In India, it was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as aggression against its sovereignty.
• The operation boosted Nehru's popularity in India, although he faced criticism from the communist opposition for using military force. The action also garnered support from right-wing groups.

International Cooperation:

• Nehru's foreign policy aimed at fostering regional cooperation among nations like Pakistan, China, and Nepal for lasting peace.
• He believed in expanding friendship and cooperation with as many countries as possible.
• Nehru had strong faith in the United Nations Organization (UNO) and the Commonwealth of Nations for promoting peace and resolving conflicts.
• He sought to eliminate racialism and colonialism from international relations.
• Nehru emphasized a foreign policy that was advantageous for India, based on peace and friendly relations with other countries.
• He believed that the essence of foreign affairs lay in determining what was most beneficial for the country.

Nature of Indo-Russia Relations During Nehru's Era:

• After World War II, both Russia and the West vied for influence over newly independent nations, including India.
• Unlike the Western countries, which had extensive experience in colonial governance, Russia struggled to understand and engage with foreign nationalities.
• The Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with India before British departure in 1947. Nehru appointed his sister, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, as India's first ambassador to Moscow.
• Stalin viewed India's independence with skepticism, considering Nehru an American imperialist agent, while Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov suspected Nehru of being a British intelligence agent.
• Nikita Khrushchev acknowledged that Russian knowledge of India was rudimentary. The Soviet leadership found Nehru's non-violent policies perplexing and regarded Gandhi's teachings as impractical.
• Official Russian visits to India were delayed due to Stalin's indifference, Nehru's focus on relations with newly independent nations, and the perception that India was pursuing a capitalist development path.
• In June 1955, Nehru visited Russia, where he was impressed by Soviet achievements. However, the Soviet leadership remained cautious about Nehru's mixed-economy approach.
• Despite differences, official talks between Nehru and Khrushchev were cordial, with both sides respecting each other's perspectives.