Decolonisation of Algeria | History Optional for UPSC PDF Download

The Conquest of Algeria

• In 1830, France launched a brutal invasion of Algeria, marked by widespread violence, including massacres, rapes, and torture of the Algerian people. This violent conquest led to the deaths of nearly a third of the Algerian population during the 19th century.
• By 1848, Algeria was officially made a department of France. The overseas departments and regions of France are those located outside mainland France. In theory, these overseas departments have the same status as those in mainland France. However, in practice, many of these territories are treated more like colonies with limited rights.

• Algeria became integral to France, similar to how India was regarded as the "jewel of the Crown" by the British Empire. The colonization of Algeria proved to be highly beneficial and economically productive for France.
• After the French conquest, over a million Europeans settled in Algeria, making up about 10% of the population. These settlers, known as the pied-noirs or colons, were primarily of French, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese descent. Many of these Europeans came from working-class backgrounds but held a higher social status than the native Algerians. This socio-economic disparity fostered mistrust between the native Algerians and the pied-noirs.

Algerian Nationalism

Early Aspirations for Independence:

• In the 1920s, some Algerian intellectuals began to desire independence or, at the very least, greater autonomy and self-rule.
• However, they felt that the concept of self-determination was primarily reserved for the white peoples of Europe.
• The pied-noirs, or French settlers in Algeria, were also resistant to the idea of Algerian natives participating in democratic life, as they did not want to coexist with the native population on equal terms.

The Sétif Massacre:

• On 8 May 1945, while France celebrated its victory in World War II, there was an expectation that liberation would extend to the Algerians as well.
• When this did not happen, native Algerians organized a protest in Sétif to demand independence.
• The protests escalated into violence, with protesters killing more than 100 pied-noirs.
• In retaliation, French soldiers killed up to 30,000 Algerian natives.
• The Sétif massacre shocked Algerians and radicalized the liberal independence movement, leading to the emergence of a new generation of Algerian independence leaders.

Events of the Algerian Civil War

Beginning of the Algerian War:

• On 1 November 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched an armed revolt across Algeria, demanding independence.
• The French government responded by deploying troops to monitor the situation, marking the start of the Algerian War.

Philippeville Massacre:

• In August 1955, the FLN carried out attacks on civilians in Philippeville, resulting in the deaths of over 120 people.
• In retaliation, French troops and pied-noir vigilante groups killed approximately 12,000 Algerians.

The Battle of Algiers:

• On 30 September 1956, the FLN shifted its focus to urban areas to draw attention to the conflict.
• Women associated with the FLN planted bombs in public places, sparking the Battle of Algiers.
• The city erupted in violence, leading to public disapproval of French rule.

French Military Response and Loss of Support:

• The French army's response to the FLN's actions during the Battle of Algiers involved extreme measures, including torture.
• This approach alienated public opinion and caused France to lose support from its allies.

Rise of Charles de Gaulle:

• In May 1958, after the French government struggled to suppress the revolution,pied-noirs stormed the governor-general’s office in Algiers.
• With the support of French army officers, they called for Charles de Gaulle to become the new president of France.
• The French National Assembly accepted this proposal, and de Gaulle was installed as the leader of France, which was welcomed by both the pied-noirs and native Algerians.

De Gaulle's Shift on Algerian Independence:

• In September 1959, de Gaulle declared that Algeria's freedom was essential, realizing that French control was no longer feasible.
• This declaration shocked and frightened the pied-noirs.

Attempts to Preserve French Algeria:

• In April 1961, prominent generals in the French army attempted to overthrow de Gaulle in Algeria, hoping to preserve French Algeria.

Negotiations and Ceasefire:

• In March 1962, the French government declared a ceasefire after negotiations in Evian.
• From March to June 1962, the OAS mounted terrorist attacks against civilians in response to what they saw as France's defeat in Algeria.
• Despite this, the OAS and the FLN eventually reached a ceasefire agreement.

Independence Referendum:

• On 1 July 1962, Algeria held a referendum to approve the Evian Agreements, which called for an independent Algeria.
• Six million ballots were cast, with an overwhelming 99.72% support for independence.

Torture during the Algerian War

• In 2018, France publicly acknowledged for the first time its use of torture during the Algerian War, a stark contrast to its previous decades of denial. The methods of torture included hangings, waterboarding, and rape, among various other brutal techniques. The use of torture is so prevalent in colonial regimes that it is often seen as a fundamental aspect of colonialism itself.
• During the Algerian War, a memoir titled The Question by Henri Alleg, an Algerian Jew who was tortured by French forces, was published. Despite being banned in France, the memoir gained popularity and became one of the most widely read books in the country at the time. Alleg's memoir detailed his horrific experiences of being drugged, beaten, and burned by French troops during the war and shed light on the torture endured by many native Algerians.
• Physical torture was not the only method employed by French troops; psychological torture was also a common practice. This psychological aspect was heavily observed by psychiatrist and anti-colonial thinker Frantz Fanon during his time in Algeria, and it played a significant role in his decision to join the FLN (National Liberation Front).
• The widespread use of violence and torture during the Algerian War contributes to its reputation as one of the most brutal conflicts of the postcolonial era.

Effects of the Algerian War

• The Algerian War is viewed as a symbol of hope for those under colonial rule and remains one of the most significant conflicts of the post-colonial period.
• In the war's aftermath, hundreds of thousands of pied-noirs(French settlers in Algeria) fled to France, fearing retribution from the FLN. This mass exodus created a substantial community in France that feels a disconnect from both Algeria and France, often yearning for their former homes in Algeria.
• Furthermore, the history of French rule in Algeria and the subsequent war has fostered a deep-seated mistrust between France and Algeria. In recent years, France has begun to openly discuss the methods used during the Algerian War and has taken responsibility for the death of a missing FLN fighter, after decades of denial.
• The memories of the atrocities committed during the Algerian War remain vivid in the minds of Algerians, profoundly influencing their policies and attitudes towards France.