Neolithic Sites | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Burzahom

• The site is located in the northeastern part of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, on the flood plains of the Jhelum River. 
• It is recognized as the first Neolithic site in Kashmir. 

Neolithic Culture:

• Initially, the people at this site were not familiar with agriculture and relied on hunting and fishing for their subsistence. 
• Settlements date back to around 2700 BC, with early inhabitants living in mud-plastered circular and oval pits. These pits had steps and ladders for access. Over time, people began to construct houses at ground level. 

Tools and Artifacts:

• A significant number of well-polished bone and stone tools have been discovered at the site. 
• Bone tools, including harpoons, needles, and arrowheads, were commonly used. 

Burials:

• Human and animal burials have been found at the site. Humans were buried both primarily and secondarily in pits, often dug into the floors of houses. In secondary burials, skulls and long bones were preferred. 
• Pet animals, such as dogs, were buried with their owners. 

Pottery:

• Early pottery found at the site was crude and handmade. Later pottery was wheel-made. 

Agriculture:

• Evidence of cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, and lentils has been discovered. 

Megalithic Culture:

• The site later transitioned to a megalithic culture, following the Neolithic period. 

Gufkral

1. Archaeological Site Overview :

• Location: South-east of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. 
• Historical Significance: The site dates back to around 3000 B.C. during the Ceramic Neolithic period. 

2. Settlement Features:

• Type of Dwellings: The settlement comprised pit dwellings, which were homes built into the ground. 
• Surrounding Features: These dwellings were surrounded by storage pits for food and hearths for cooking. 

3. Tools and Artefacts:

• Stone Tools: Polished stone tools were discovered at the site, indicating advanced tool-making skills. 
• Bone and Horn Tools: Tools made from bone and horn were also found, showcasing the use of available materials. 
• Other Artefacts: Notable artefacts include steatite beads and a terracotta marble, reflecting the craftsmanship of the people. 

4. Evidence of Domestication and Agriculture:

• Domesticated Animals: Remains of domesticated sheep and goats were found, indicating the transition to animal husbandry. 
• Crops: Evidence of barley, wheat, and lentils suggests the beginning of agricultural practices. 
• Wild Animals: The presence of wild animal remains indicates a shift from hunting to a more settled way of life. 

5. Pottery Development:

• Early Pottery: The initial pottery was handmade and coarse, known as grey ware. 
• Later Pottery: Over time, the pottery became wheel-made, showing advancements in pottery techniques. 

Sarai Khola

• Handmade pottery in plain red or brown, featuring burnished surfaces and mat impressions on the base. 
• Tools made from ground and polished stone, including celts, blades, microliths, and numerous bone points. 
• Terracotta wheels and toy carts discovered at the site. 

Chaligai

• The Neolithic culture in Swat Valley shows similarities with that of Kashmir. 
• Evidence of pit dwellings has been found. 
• Coarse handmade pottery is a common discovery. 
• There is evidence for the use of copper and bronze during this period. 
• Distinctive burial rites and a cult of fire are indicated by the presence of cremations and other related findings. 

Mahagara

• Remains of 20 huts constructed from wattle and daub were discovered, including floors and post-holes. 
• Neolithic stone tools such as blades and microliths were found, indicating advanced tool-making skills. 
• Artifacts like handmade pottery, bone arrowheads, and terracotta beads were uncovered. 
• A cattle pen was found, suggesting the presence of domesticated animals, with 40-60 animals likely housed there. 
• Animal bones from cattle, sheep, goats, horses, deer, and wild boar were discovered, indicating that the first three species were domesticated. 
• Pottery with rice husk embedded in it was found, suggesting dietary practices. 
• The remains of bones and plants indicate that people engaged in hunting wild animals, gathering wild plant foods, and domesticating both plants and animals. 

Kunjhun

In Son Valley, Sidhi district, Madhya Pradesh, around 4000 B.C.E.: 

• Evidence of wild and domesticated rice was discovered. 
• A site was identified where stone artefacts were manufactured, indicating specialized production. 

Lahrudeva

• The site is located on an elevated mound of about 4 meters, surrounded by a lake on three sides. 
• It shows a five-fold cultural sequence from the Neolithic period to the early centuries CE. 
• In the early Neolithic period, the pottery found includes handmade cord-impressed red ware and black and red ware.
• The remains of huts from this period are made of wattle and daub.
• Evidence of domesticated rice and wild grasses has also been found. 

Koldihawa

• Cultural Continuity: Evidence shows a continuous culture from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. 
• Rice Remains: Remains of rice and impressions of rice husk found in burnt clay pieces. This indicates familiarity with both wild and domesticated rice ( Oryza sativa ). 
• Tools and Artifacts: Discovery of various tools including stone blades, polished stone celts, microliths, querns, mullers (used for grinding), and bone tools. 
• Pottery: Three types of handmade pottery found: cord-marked pottery, plain red pottery, and black and red ware (BRW). 
• Chalcolithic Period: Introduction of wheel-made pottery and continued use of BRW. 
• Settlement Structures: Remnants of mud floors with burnt clay, post holes, and wattle-and-daub houses discovered. 
• Tool Kit: Included copper, bone, and stone tools, as well as microlithic tools. 
• Ornaments and Beads: Copper beads, bone tools, semi-precious stone beads, ring stones, and terracotta artifacts found. 
• Cattle Pen: Discovery of a cattle pen with hoof marks of cattle. 

Sohagaura

• Located at the confluence of the Rapti and Ami rivers. 
• Shows a six-fold cultural sequence from the Neolithic period to the Medieval era. 
• Pottery findings include: 
• Ill-fired, handmade pottery with a coarse texture. 
• Cord-impressed pottery. 
• Black and Red Ware (BRW) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). 
• The Sohagaura copper plate inscription from the 3rd century BC, written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language, was found here. 

Senuar/Senuwar(Neolithic and Chalcoiithic both)

• Houses: People lived in wattle and daub houses, a traditional building method using wooden frames and mud. 
• Pottery: Different types of pottery were found, including red ware, burnished red ware, and burnished grey ware, mostly made using wheels. 
• Tools: Stone tools, microliths (small stone tools), and some bone tools were discovered. 
• Beads: Beads made from semi-precious stones were found, indicating skill in craftsmanship. 
• Domesticated Animals: Evidence of domesticated animals such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, cats, dogs, and pigs was found. Wild animals like nilgai, antelope, and chital were also present. 
• Crops: Crops were grown twice a year, including rice, barley, dwarf wheat, millet, and lentils. 
• Shellfish: Large remains of molluscs and shells suggest that shellfish were also a part of the diet. 

Chirand

• Neolithic Period (earlier than 2500 B.C.): Settlements consisted of circular and semi-circular wattle and daub huts with post holes and hearths. Evidence of agriculture with crops such as wheat, rice, mung, masur, and peas. Agricultural tools were made of stone and bone, with bone tools being a special feature. Evidence of hunting with bones of domesticated and wild animals found. Microliths also discovered. 
• Pottery: Hand-made pottery, including red ware and Black Red Ware (BRW). Post-firing painting on pottery. 
• Chalcolithic Culture (around 1600 BCE):BRW pottery found. Two phases identified: 
  • First Phase: Without iron. 
  • Second Phase: With iron but without Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). 
• Later Period: Emergence of NBPW culture. 

Sarutaru

• Site Type: Neolithic 
• Excavation Findings: Stone celts, charcoal, pot shards, and round-butted axes 
• Pottery Details: Handmade pottery in brown, buff, and grey colors, some featuring cord impressions 
• Pottery Comparison: The pottery from Sarutaro is similar to that of Daojali Hading in Assam 

Daojali Hading

• Stone and fossil wood tools such as axes, adzes, chisels, hoes, grinding slabs, querns, and mullers were found. 
• Polished stone tools, ceramics, and kitchen items were also present. 
• Raw materials used included shale, sandstone, and fossil wood. 
• Pottery was handmade with cord marks and plain red designs. 
• Evidence suggests that people were engaged in agriculture, grain storage, and food preparation. 

Napchik

• The southern part of Imphai Valley, located on the right bank of the Manipur River, is home to archaeological findings dating back to around 1650 ± 350 BCE. 
• Excavations in this area have uncovered handmade cordmarked ware, as well as a variety of stone tools including choppers, scrapers, flakes, knives, grinding stones, and polished celts. 
• Some of these tools bear a resemblance to those found in Thailand and Myanmar, suggesting cultural or technological connections. 
• The site is situated on a small hillock near Wangu, and the similarities in edge ground tools and corded ware with sites in Thailand and Burma further indicate the potential for cross-regional interactions. 

Pandu Rajar Dhibi

• Location: Burdwan district, West Bengal. 
• Time Period: Neolithic and Chalcolithic era. 
• Significance: Site of the first Chalcolithic culture discovered in West Bengal. 
• Artifacts Found: Microliths, ground stone tools, bone tools, and pottery. 
• Chalcolithic Period Items: Copper artifacts, beads made from semi-precious stones, terracotta figurines, iron spearheads and points, slag, and ovens. 
• Iron Artifacts: Found at Chalcolithic levels. 
• Pottery: Mainly Black Red Ware (BRW). 
• Animal Bones: Remains of domesticated cattle, buffalo, goat, and deer. 

Mahisdal

• The discovery of a Neolithic site in the Medinipur district of West Bengal has provided valuable insights into the early agricultural practices and lifestyle of communities in the region. 
• The site, characterized by house floors rammed with terracotta nodules, suggests a level of sophistication in building techniques during the Neolithic period. 
• Artifacts found at the site, including microliths, bone tools, beads made from semi-precious stones, terracotta ornaments, a terracotta phallus, and copper celts, indicate a diverse range of activities and skills among the inhabitants. 
• The presence of Black and Red Ware (BRW) pottery further highlights the cultural and artistic practices of the time. 
• Notably, a storage pit containing charred rice grains suggests that these early communities were not only cultivating rice but also storing it, pointing to a more settled and organized way of life. 

Barudih

• Phase I: During this phase, people used polished axes, made handmade pottery, and there was evidence of charcoal. 
• Phase II: This phase saw the introduction of rice grain, wheel-made pottery, iron objects, and more charcoal. Stone celts and iron sickles were also found during this phase. 

Kuchai

Utnur/ Utnoor

• Located in the Adilabad district of Telangana, within the Raichur Doab region. 
• One of the earliest Neolithic sites in South India, with evidence of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic periods. 

Economic Activities:

• Cattle rearing was the major economic activity at this site. 

Archaeological Findings:

• Wooden enclosures of cattle pens were found, indicating frequent rebuilding. 
• Dung was repeatedly burned, and cattle hoof-prints were discovered in ash. 
• Small quantities of ground stone axes, stone blades, and handmade coarse pottery were found. 
• Pottery included both burnished grey and buff varieties. 

Nagarjunakonda

• Neolithic and Megalithic Culture: Evidence of Neolithic and Megalithic culture has been found in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, indicating early human settlement and cultural development in the region. 
• Post Holes: Post holes, which are remnants of ancient structures, have been discovered in the area, further supporting the presence of early communities. 
• Vijaypuri: The site is known as Vijaypuri, which was the capital of the Ikshvaku kings, a prominent ruling dynasty in ancient India. 
• Buddhist Centre: Vijayawada was a significant centre of Buddhism, named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist philosopher. The area is home to various Buddhist relics and structures. 
• Maha Stupa, Chaitya, Vihara: Archaeological findings include the Maha Stupa, Chaitya, and Vihara, which are important Buddhist structures used for worship and monastic living. 
• Inscriptions: Inscriptions found at the site indicate that the construction of temples and monasteries was sponsored by both royal and non-royal individuals, including a queen of the Ikshvaku dynasty. 
• Guilds of Merchants and Artisans: The area was inhabited by merchants and artisans who were organized into guilds, suggesting a developed economy and social structure. 

Paiyampalli

• Neolithic & Megalithic Settlements: Evidence of early human habitation and burial sites. 
• Habitation-Cum-Burial Site: Sites used for both living and burial purposes were found. 
• Bone Tools: There was an absence of tools made from bones. 
• Huts: Huts were found with floors made of stone chips and plastered over. 

Agriculture:

• Evidence of cereals and pulses being cultivated. 
• Charred grains of horse gram and green gram were discovered. 

Megalithic Pottery:

• Thin, coarse red ware that was painted. 
• Black and red ware pottery, including black ware and red ware. 

Metallurgy:

• Smelted iron was found, indicating advanced metalworking. 
• Tools and weapons were produced locally. 

T. Narsipur

• Neolithic and Megalithic culture. 
• Copper tools, celts, rods, chisel, Gold ornaments (also in Hallur) 
• Pot burials. Skeletons without ankles. 
• Post holes. 

Brahmagiri

• Located in the Chitradurga district of Karnataka, this site dates back to the Neolithic-Chalolithic and Megalithic periods. 
• The remains include wattle-and-daub huts with post holes, polished stone tools, microlithic blades, and handmade grey pottery from the later period. 
• Copper–bronze objects have also been found, indicating advanced metallurgy. 

Burials:

• The site has revealed different types of burials, including extended burials of adults and urn burials of children. 
• Megalithic monuments have been discovered in the area, suggesting a complex burial practice. 

Agriculture and Domestication:

• Evidence of agriculture and the domestication of animals has been found at the site, indicating a settled lifestyle. 
• Draft animals were used, further demonstrating advanced agricultural practices. 

Ashokan Edicts:

• The Ashokan edicts found at the site denote the southernmost extent of the Mauryan Empire, highlighting the historical significance of the area. 

Hallur

• Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Megalithic Site: Haveri district is known for its early settlements during the Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Megalithic periods. 
• Earliest Use of Iron: Sites like Piklihal and Hallur provide evidence of the earliest use of iron in South India. 
• Tools: The region saw the use of polished tools, microlith blades, chalcolithic blade tools, copper axes, and fish hooks. 
• Ornaments: Ornaments made of carnelian, ceramic, and gold have been found in these early settlements. 
• Transition to Iron Age: The transition to the Iron Age is marked by the presence of megaliths and iron implements. 
• Ash-Mounds and Burial Practices: Ash-mounds and double urn burials were common practices during this period. 
• Agriculture: Early agriculture in the region included crops like millet, horse gram, and green gram. 
• Pottery: Pottery from the early phase was handmade and of grey ware, while the later phase saw the introduction of wheel-made pottery, including Black Red Ware (BRW). 
• Herding: Cattle, sheep, and goats were commonly herded in the region, as evidenced by animal bones found at the sites. 
• Habitation Structures: Early habitation structures included circular floors made of stone chips and river sand, wattle and daub huts, and post holes. One house even featured a circular fireplace with ash and charcoal remnants. 

Palavoy

• Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh

Sanganakallu

In Bellary district, Karnataka, there is an ancient site from the Neolithic to Chalcolithic period. 
Pottery:

• Earlier Neolithic phase: a-ceramic, handmade pottery without copper. 
• Later phase: introduction of copper tools and wheel-made pottery. 
• Types of pottery found: Black Red Ware (BRW), grey wares, brown wares, and black pottery. 

Tools and Artefacts
Earlier Phase:

• Polished stone tools, celts, blades, microliths, bone points, chisels. 
• Copper and bronze artefacts. 

Later Phase:

• Continued presence of polished stone tools and introduction of copper and bronze artefacts. 

Terracotta Figurines:

• Figurines of bulls and birds found, indicating artistic expression and possible cultural significance. 

Animal Remains:

• Bones of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goat, and dog identified, suggesting animal husbandry practices. 

Habitation:

• Evidence of round wattle-and-daub huts, indicating the type of shelter used by the inhabitants. 

Maski

• Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Megalithic Cultures: Evidence of ancient cultures from the Neolithic to Chalcolithic and Megalithic periods has been found in Raichur district. 
• Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka:. rock edict from the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered, marking the first instance where his name is mentioned. 
• Artefacts: Various artefacts have been unearthed, including: 
• Polished stone tools, microlithic blades, and a copper rod. 
• Beads made of carnelian, agate, chalcedony, shell, coral, glass, and paste. 
• Pottery: Different types of pottery have been found, such as: 
• Red ware and Black Red Ware (BRW). 
• Pottery with incised designs. 
• Animal Remains: Animal bones have been discovered, indicating past human activities. 
• Rock Paintings: Ancient rock paintings have been identified in the region. 
• Subsistence Activities: The subsistence base of the people included: 
• Agriculture, animal domestication, and hunting. 

Mehrgarh

Time Period: Neolithic and Chalcolithic era. 

• During the Neolithic period,  it was a small village engaged in farming and herding. 
• The site features planned ancient farm villages  with mud brick houses, which later evolved to sun-dried brick. 
• Tools made from bone were used, and the community lacked pottery at this stage. 
• This site is considered a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)  . 
• It was eventually abandoned as Harappan urbanization began. 
• The site is among the earliest to show evidence of farming (wheat and barley), herding, and metallurgy. 
• It also displays one of the earliest instances of cotton cultivation and evidence of fishing. 
• A unique discovery at this site includes  dental surgery and related medicinal practices. 
• Figurines made of terracotta have been found at the site. 
• The site also indicates trade and craft production, as evidenced by grave goods such as turquoise beads, shell bangles, and lapis lazuli beads. 

Kili Gul Mohammad

• Location: On the banks of the Hannah River in Quetta Valley, Baluchistan, Pakistan. 
• Time Period: The first three levels of occupation date back to the Neolithic period, starting around 5500 BC. 
• Early Settlement: The site began as an aceramic settlement, indicating a time before pottery was used. 
• Development of Pottery: Over time, handmade pottery was introduced, which later evolved into fine wheel-made black on red ware in the third phase of occupation. 
• Housing: Early inhabitants lived in wattle and daub or mud houses. 
• Animal Remains: Excavations revealed remains of various animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and wild asses. 
• Tools: The tools discovered at the site include microliths, a few ground tools, bone points, and spatulas. 

Rana Gundai

• The Neolithic period in the Anambar Valley, Pakistan, is marked by the use of stone, bone tools, and micro lithic chips and blades, as well as bone points and eye needles. 
• The community was initially semi-nomadic and used handmade plain pottery. 
• Domesticated animal bones, including sheep, goats, and wild asses, have been found from this period. 
• In the later period, pottery with buff or red surfaces and decorations such as humped bulls became common. 

Golbai Sasan

• The site is located on the left bank of the Mandakini River in the Puri district of Odisha. 
• It is an archaeological site dating back to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. 

Neolithic Period Findings:

• Post-holes were discovered, indicating the presence of structures. 
• Red and grey handmade pottery with cord impressions was found. 
• Bone tools, including weapons and ornaments, were uncovered. 

Chalcolithic Period Findings:

• Circular huts with hearths and post holes were identified. 
• Both handmade and wheel-made pottery were found, including Black and Red Ware (BRW). 
• Copper artefacts and bone artefacts, including weapons and ornaments, were discovered. 

Agriculture and Animal Remains:

• Evidence of agriculture includes rice, moong, and kulthi. 
• Animal bones of cattle, goat, deer, and elephant were found. 

Polished Stone Tools:

• Polished stone tools, including axes, adzes, and shouldered celts, were discovered. 

Human Figurine:

• A human figurine was found at the site. 

Chopani Mando (Near Koldihwa)

In Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh:

• All the three stages of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stage found.

Paleolithic period:

• Stone tools made from chert. 
• Bones discovered included those of wild cattle, sheep, and goats. 
• Represents early stage of animal domestication. 

Mesolithic period:

• Geometric and non-geometric microliths such as blades, points, scrapers mostly made of chert. 
• Handmade pottery, hammer stones and ring stones found. 
• Bones of wild cattle and sheep/goats. 
• Pieces of burnt clay with reed impressions showed that people lived in wattle-and-daub huts. 
• Wild rice is reported. 

Watgal

• Grey Ware: Excavated grey ware from the Brahmagiri and Jorwe fabrics. 
• Betel Nuts: Earliest evidence of betel nut usage in South Asia found here. 
• Stone Tools: Increase in the number of stone tools over time, particularly those made of chert. 
• Pottery: Handmade coarse pottery including grey and red ware, as well as burnished grey. Later, wheel-made pottery became dominant. 
• Burial Practices: Both urn burials and extended burials observed, with stone pots appearing as grave goods in later phases. 
• Artefacts: Microliths, milling stones, beads made from marine shells, stone, and terracotta, as well as shell pendants. 
• Terracotta Figurines: Animal and human terracotta figurines, including one representing the torso of a female. 
• Settlement Site: Site without ash mounds. 
• Areca Nuts: Fragments of areca nuts found at the site. 

Budhihal

• Settlement site featuring ash mounds and stone tool industry. 
• Ash mound area divided into two parts. cattle pen in the east and cow dung disposal area in the west. 
• Evidence of cattle rearing as the main occupation shown by the cattle pen and bones of domesticated cattle. 
• Discovery of a butchering area within the settlement, with a hard floor made of kankar-like material. 
• Time period: 1900-1400 BC. 
• Seeds of wild plants such as ber, Indian cherry, and amla, along with a few grains of domesticated horse gram found. 
• The site provides a vivid picture of community food preparation and feasting. 

Piklihal

• Raichur district, Karnataka 

Neolithic-Chalcolithic Site:

• Earliest use of iron in South India at Piklihal and Hallur. 
• Habitation: Circular huts and wattle-and-daub huts. 
• Tools: Neolithic tools and microlithic blades. 
• Pottery: Handmade and wheel-made pottery, including grey wares, black, red wares, and BRW. Some pottery with paintings. 
• Figurines: Terracotta figurines of humans, animals, and birds. 
• Animal Remains: Bones of domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep. 
• Beads: Carnelian and shell beads, along with fine disc beads obtained from the Harappans. 
• Rock Painting: Evidence of rock painting found. 

Sangam Kallu(Kupgal)

• Location: Bellary district, Karnataka. 
• Timeline: Around 2000 BC, showing Neolithic-Chalcolithic characteristics. 
• Settlement Features: Wattle and daub huts, settlement site with ash mounds. 
• Tool and Pottery Evidence: Early period was aceramic and devoid of copper, followed by a phase with copper and bronze tools. Pottery included black on red ware, burnished grey and brown ware. 
• Other Finds: Microliths, bone tools, terracotta figurines of bulls and birds. 
• Animal Remains: Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, and dog found. 
• Crops: Millets and pulses. 

Anjira

• Period I: Semi-nomadic population with fine wheel-made buff ware. Chert blades were also found. 
• Period II: Mud structures discovered, with pottery consisting of red-shipped ware and grey ware. 
• Period III: Houses constructed from blocks of stone. Introduction of Togau ware (red pottery with black painted designs) and Zari ware (white and black outlined paintings). 

Amri

• The site is located on the right bank of the Indus River. 
• The Neolithic phase began in the early to mid-4th millennium BC and later transformed into the Indus Civilization phase. 

2. Pre-Harappan Site:

• Sind is a prominent Pre-Harappan site in this area. 

3. Housing and Settlement:

• The houses were made of mud bricks, indicating early urban planning and development. 

4. Domesticated Animals:

• Remains of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys have been found, suggesting an agricultural and pastoral lifestyle. 

5. Pottery:

• Pottery from this site is characterized by typical handmade red pottery. 
• The pottery features geometric designs painted in black with red fillings, showcasing the artistic skills of the time. 

6. Artifacts:

• Various artifacts have been discovered, including pieces of copper, shell, and terracotta figurines. 
• Sling stones were also found, indicating the presence of tools and possibly weapons. 

Tekkalakota

• Very Near to Maski

Mundigak

• Location: Kandhar province, Afghanistan. 
• Historical Periods: Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Harappan. 

Early Settlers:

• Initially semi-nomadic. 
• Later, evidence of houses made from sun-baked bricks was discovered. 

Discoveries:

• Cooking hearths and wells found inside houses. 
• Painted pottery featuring designs like scared fig leaves and tiger-like animals. 
• Artifacts such as hump bulls, human figurines, shaft hole axes, and terracotta drains. 

Harappan Period:

• Evidence of a palace. 
• Presence of a temple. 
• City wall indicating urban planning and defense.