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Ajanta Caves

Buddhist Caves in Aurangabad District, Maharashtra:

• Date: 2nd century BC to 7th century AD
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Mentioned by the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Huen Tsang

Construction Phases:

• Satavahana Period: Hinayana Buddhism
• Vakataka Period: Mahayana Buddhism

Architecture:

• Comprises chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries)
• Early Viharas: Simpler in design and lacking shrines
• Later Viharas: Featured shrines at the rear with statues of Buddha, reflecting the shift from Hinayana to Mahayana Buddhism

Paintings:

• Mural paintings depicting Buddhist themes, such as Jataka stories
• Use of a variety of colors in the paintings

Ellora Caves

• Location: Ellora Caves are situated in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India.
• Historical Period: The caves date back to the 6th century AD and onwards.
• Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain Rock-Cut Temples: The caves feature rock-cut temples and viharas (monasteries) representing Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions.
• Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta Periods: The structures were built during the rule of the Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta dynasties.
• Jagannatha Sabha: This is a Jain Digambara cave temple constructed by the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Viharas and Chaitya Griha: The site includes several viharas and one chaitya griha (prayer hall) among the Buddhist caves.
• Kailasanatha Temple:. notable Hindu temple at Ellora, built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III in the 8th century. It is an example of Dravidian architecture, resembling Mount Kailash. The temple is free-standing, multi-storeyed, and carved out of a single rock.
• Dashavatara Cave: Features a monolithic mandapa (pillared hall) with sculptural panels depicting the ten avatars of Vishnu.
• Inscriptions: Various inscriptions are found at Ellora, including a grant by Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, inscriptions on the Kailash temple, and inscriptions in the Jain cave Jagannatha Sabha detailing the names of monks and donors.
• Cave Paintings: Ellora also features cave paintings, adding to the artistic significance of the site.

Sun Temple, Konark

• Location: Near Bhubaneshwar in Odisha.
• Historical Background: Famous for the Sun Temple, originally built in the 9th century AD and later reconstructed by the Ganga King Narsingh Dev in the 13th century.
• Architectural Design: The temple is designed as a massive sun chariot with 12 pairs of intricately decorated wheels.
• Original Structure: Included a sanctum with a curvilinear Shikhara, a Jagamohana (mandapa), and a detached dancing hall, all aligned on the same axis.
• Additional Features: Featured several subsidiary shrines and structures within a compound wall, which had three entrance gates.
• Sculptural Art: The temple is adorned with numerous sculptures of birds, animals, deities, Apsaras, and terracotta figurines depicting sensuality, reflecting the Khajuraho style of sculpture.
• European Reference: The Konark temple was referred to as the "Black Pagoda" by the Portuguese due to its dark stone and impressive architecture.

Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram

Mahabalipuram in Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu, is a historic site developed by the Pallava Kings Narsimhavarman Mamalla and Rajasimhavarman in the 7th century AD. The town is home to around forty monuments, including the largest open-air bas-relief in the world.

• UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Famous Monuments:
• Descent of the Ganges (Arjuna’s Penance). A massive open-air rock relief.
• Pancha Rathas (Five Chariots). Nine monolithic temples, with the Five Rathas being the most significant, each carved from a single piece of granite.
• Shore Temple. A structural temple located along the Bay of Bengal, with its entrance facing west, away from the sea.
• The Pallavas used the port of Mahabalipuram to initiate trade and diplomatic missions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Khajuraho Group of Monuments

• Location: Chhatarpur district, Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh, India.
• Overview:. collection of Hindu and Jain temples renowned for their intricate sculptures and architectural brilliance.
• Famous Temples:
  • Kandariya Mahadeva Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, known for its elaborate carvings.
  • Lakshman Temple: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
  • Chaturbhuja Temple: Another temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
  • Chaunsath Yoginis Temple: Dedicated to the 64 Yoginis.
  • Chitragupta Temple: Dedicated to the Sun God.
  • Adinatha Jain Temple: A significant Jain temple.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site: The group of monuments was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its cultural and historical significance.
• Historical Background: The temples were constructed by the Chandella rulers between the 10th and 12th centuries.
• Architectural Style: Nagara style of architecture, characterized by its distinct features and craftsmanship.
• Material: Initially, sandstone was used for construction, later followed by granite.
• Layout: The temples are not enclosed by walls and are erected on high platforms or terraces (jagati) with bands of sculptures.
• Shikhara: The Nagara shikharas (spire) are composed of several miniature shikharas called Urisingas, with the crowning element being Amalakas.
• Temple Plan: The temples are designed in the Panchayatana style, with the main axis running east to west.
• Temple Elements: Key elements of the temples include the mukha-mandapa (entrance porch), mandapa (hall), antarala (vestibule), and garbha-griha (sanctum).
• Pradakshina: The circumambulatory path is adorned with carvings.
• Shikhara Segments: The shikhara is divided into seven segments.
• Carvings and Sculptures: Approximately 10% of the carvings depict sexual themes, while the rest portray scenes from everyday life, such as women grooming, playing games, dancing, and activities of musicians, potters, and farmers. There is also a notable depiction of horsemen, indicating the transition from chariots to cavalry.

Group of Monuments at Pattadakal

The Group of Monuments at Pattadakal, located in the Bagalakote district on the west bank of the Malaprabha River, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. This site features an impressive collection of nine Hindu temples and a Jain sanctuary in northern Karnataka.

• The group includes eight temples dedicated to Shiva, a Jain Narayana temple, and the Papanatha Temple, a Shaivite sanctuary.
• Among these, the Virupaksha Temple, built around 740 AD by Queen Lokamahadevi to honor her husband King Vikramaditya II's victory over the Pallava kings, is regarded as the most remarkable architectural achievement.
• These temples, constructed by the Chalukya Dynasty between the 6th and 8th centuries in Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal, showcase a stunning blend of Nagara and Dravida architectural styles.
• The friezes on the Hindu temples depict various Vedic and Puranic themes, illustrating stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana, as well as elements from other Hindu texts like the Panchatantra and the Kiratarjuniya.

Elephanta Caves

• Located on a small island near Mumbai, known as Gharapuri in ancient times, meaning "the city of Caves."
• The island features two groups of caves:
• Five Hindu Caves.
• Rock-cut stone sculptures dedicated to Shiva, carved from basalt rock.
• Two Buddhist Caves. No inscriptions have been found in these caves.
• Archaeological evidence includes a few Kshatrapa coins dating back to the 4th century AD.
• The caves were primarily created by the Chalukyas and, mostly, the Rashtrakutas during the 7th and 8th centuries.
• Notable sculptures from the Rashtrakuta period include:
• Trimurti of Elephanta. Depicting three faces of Shiva.
• Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures.
• In 1534, the Gujarat Sultanate surrendered Elephanta to the Portuguese, who named the island "Elephanta Island" in honor of a large rock-cut statue of an elephant made from black stone, which was then installed on a mound.

Great Living Chola Temples

• The Great Living Chola Temples, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, are a testament to the architectural and artistic prowess of the Chola Empire.
• The site includes three remarkable temples:
• 1. Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur
• 2. Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram
• 3. Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram
• The Airavatesvara Temple, built by Rajaraja II at Darasuram, features a 24-meter tall vimana (temple tower) and a stone image of Shiva.
• These temples showcase the Chola dynasty's remarkable achievements in architecture, sculpture, painting, and bronze casting.

The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram:

• Located in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu.
• Founded by Rajendra Chola to celebrate his victory over the Palas.
• The name signifies the town of the Chola who led a victorious march to the Ganges River.
• The temple, dedicated to Shiva, was established in 1035 AD.
• Notable for its Dravida style architecture and intricate carvings on hard granite stones.
• Features figures of dancing Nataraja and Ardhanareshwara.

The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur:

• Situated in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu.
• Thanjavur was the capital of the Chola Empire and a vital center for religion, art, and architecture.
• Built in the 11th century by Raja Raja Chola I.
• Dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.
• A massive Nandi statue, the second largest in India and carved from a single block of granite, guards the entrance of the sanctuary.
• The walls of the sanctum are adorned with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayaka periods.
• The temple served as an inspiration for the Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple built by Raja Raja's son, Rajendra Chola I.

Tanjore Painting:

• Originating in the early 17th century during the Nayaka period in Thanjavur.
• Depicts episodes from religious texts as well as secular subjects.

Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi

Buddhist monuments in Raisen district, MP:

• Time period: Mainly dated between 200 BC and 100 BC.
• Features: Monolithic pillars, palaces, temples, and monasteries.
• Buddhist Stupa: Originally commissioned by Ashoka in the 3rd century BC.
• Structure:. hemispherical brick stupa built over the relics of the Buddha.
• Ashoka's Pillar Edict: Erected polished sandstone edict by Ashoka.
• Sunga Period: Expansion with stone slabs and enclosure by a stone balustrade with four toranas.
• Satavahana Period: Improvements and coloring of gateways and balustrade.
• Stone Carving: Buddha depicted by attributes such as a horse, footprints, or a canopy under the bodhi tree, carved in a wooden style.
• Narrative Sculptures: Gateways adorned with narrative sculptures depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha integrated with everyday events.

Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya

In Bodh Gaya (Gaya district, Bihar):

• Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four sacred sites linked to the life of Lord Buddha, specifically his Enlightenment.
• The original temple was constructed by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., while the current structure dates back to the 5th or 6th century.
• It is among the earliest Buddhist temples in India built entirely of brick, dating from the late Gupta period.
• The temple has undergone several major restorations since the 19th century.
• Height. The temple stands at 55 metres tall.
• Shikhara. Its pyramidal shikhara features multiple layers of niches, arch motifs, and intricate engravings.
• Towers. Four smaller towers, identical to the central one but topped with umbrella-like domes, are situated at the corners of the two-story structure.
• Interior Shrine. Inside the temple, there is a shrine housing a yellow sandstone statue of the Buddha.
• Stone Railings. Surrounding the temple and the Bodhi tree, the railings come in two distinct types:
  • Older Railings. Made of sandstone and dating to about 150 BCE, featuring scenes like Lakshmi being bathed by elephants and Surya riding a chariot drawn by four horses.
  • Newer Railings. Constructed from unpolished coarse granite during the Gupta period, displaying figures of stupas, garudas, and lotus flowers.
• Images and Deities. The site is associated with images of Avalokitesvara (Padmapani, Khasarpana), Vajrapani, Tara, Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala, Vajravārāhī, and Vedic deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Surya.
• Ashoka Pillar. A pillar erected by Ashoka stands at the southeast corner of the temple.

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

Rock Shelters in Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh
Time Period: Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Tools:

• Paleolithic Tools: Made of quartzite and sandstone, large in size.
• Mesolithic Tools: Made of chalcedony, smaller in size.

Floors: Paved with flat stone slabs
Bones: No bones have been found so far
Rock Cave Paintings:

• A natural art gallery with rock cave paintings from various layers (Paleolithic to Mesolithic)
• Themes: Hunting by men, dancing, children playing, women working, signs of proto-family setups, etc.

Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park

• The site is located in the Panchmahal district of Gujarat, India, near the historical city of Champaner. Champaner was founded in the 8th century by Vanraj Chavda, a prominent king of the Chavda Dynasty.
• The area is rich in unexcavated archaeological, historic, and cultural heritage properties set in an impressive landscape. This includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress from an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of Gujarat.

Historical Significance:

• The site features remnants of fortifications, palaces, religious buildings, residential areas, agricultural structures, and water installations dating from the 8th to the 14th centuries.
• Notable among these is the Kalikamata Temple, located on Pavagadh Hill, which is an important shrine in the region.

Rani ki vav (The Queen’s Stepwell)

Rani ki Vav is an ancient stepwell located in Patan, Gujarat, on the banks of the Saraswati River.

• It was originally constructed in the 11th century AD as a memorial to a king.
• The stepwell is attributed to Udayamati, the daughter of Khengara of Saurashtra, and the queen and wife of Bhima I, a Chaulukya king.
• Rani ki Vav measures over 64 meters in length, 20 meters in width, and 27 meters in depth.
• It was built in the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, showcasing intricate details and proportional beauty.
• The design is meant to resemble an inverted temple, emphasizing the sacredness of water.
• Rani ki Vav is divided into seven levels of stairs, adorned with over 500 principal sculptures and more than 1,000 minor ones, featuring a mix of religious, mythological, and secular imagery.
• Most sculptures are dedicated to Vishnu.
• The fourth level is the deepest, leading into a rectangular tank measuring 9.5 meters by 9.4 meters, with a depth of 23 meters.

Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda

Nalanda Mahavihara:

• Location: Bihar, India.
• Historical Significance: Dates from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.
• Features: Includes stupas, shrines, viharas, and significant art works in stucco, stone, and metal.

Ancient University:

• Nalanda is recognized as the oldest university in the Indian Subcontinent.
• The site’s history reflects the evolution of Buddhism into a organized religion and the growth of monastic and educational traditions.
• Flourished during the Gupta, Harsha, and Pala periods.

Founding and Development:

• A seal indicates that Sakraditya (Kumargupta of the 5th century) founded Nalanda.
• 7th-century Chinese pilgrims, such as Hieun Tsang and I-tsing, studied at Nalanda.
• I-tsing noted an increase in revenues from 200 villages for Nalanda’s maintenance, compared to 100 during Hieun Tsang’s time.

Library and Subjects Taught:

• Nalanda had a library known as Dharmaganja.
• Subjects taught included mainly Mahayana religious studies, grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine.
• During the Pala period, there was an influence of Vajrayana Buddhism.

Dholavira: A Harappan City

Overview of Dholavira:

• Location: Dholavira is situated in the Kutch district of Gujarat.
• City Structure: The city was organized into a citadel, a middle town, and a lower town.
• Water Conservation: Dholavira had an advanced water conservation system featuring channels and reservoirs made of stone.
• Unique Structures: Seven hemispherical constructions were discovered at the site.
• Coastal Trade Route: There was a coastal route that connected Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast.

Findings:

• Painted Black Red Ware (BRW)
• Square stamp seals
• Seals without Indus script
• Dholavira Signboard: This signboard contains ten letters of the Indus script and features the longest inscription in this script found to date.

Group of Monuments at Hampi

Hampi is situated in the remnants of the Vijayanagara Empire's capital, along the banks of the Tungabhadra River. This site is famous for its Dravidian temples and palaces. During its peak, Hampi was highly praised by foreign travelers who visited the city. Today, the Group of Monuments at Hampi is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, showcasing a variety of religious, civil, and military buildings.

• Religious Buildings:
• Hazara Rama Temple Complex: Built by Krishnadev Raya, this temple complex features intricate frescoes and carvings that depict the story of the Ramayana.
• Vittala Temple Complex: Known for its detailed carvings, this complex includes images of foreign traders, such as Persians selling horses.
• Virupaksha Temple: This temple, dedicated to Shiva, predates the Vijayanagara Empire and is one of the oldest structures in Hampi.
• Important Civil Architecture:
• Elephant Stable: This structure was used to house the eleven royal elephants in King Krishnadeva Raya’s army. The adjacent building was used to accommodate the elephant riders.

Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple

• Ramappa Temple, also known as Rudreshwara Temple, is situated in the village of Palampet, Telangana.
• The temple is named after its sculptor, Ramappa.
• It is the main Shiva temple in a walled complex built during the Kakatiyan period (1123–1323 CE) under rulers Rudradeva and Recharla Rudra.
• The temple, dedicated to Lord Ramalingeswara, features a hall with intricately carved pillars and a distinctive pyramidal Vimana made of lightweight porous bricks, known as 'floating bricks', which reduce the weight of the roof structures.
• The main structure is made of reddish sandstone, and the temple's sculptures depict regional dance customs and Kakatiyan culture.
• The temple stands on a 6-foot high star-shaped platform and is located near Ramappa Lake.
• Marco Polo, during his visit to the Kakatiya empire, reportedly called the temple “the brightest star in the galaxy of temples.”