Emerging Regional Configurations, c. 600–1200 CE - 3 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Rural Society

Agrarian Foundation of Society

• Burton Stein characterized early medieval South India as a 'peasant society' where the majority lived in settled agrarian villages.
• Peasant agriculture was the main source of subsistence and wealth, with social relations reflecting typical peasant dynamics, including power imbalances.

Social Structure and Corporate Organizations

• The society had well-developed corporate organizations and effective alliances among various corporate entities.
• Stein aimed to highlight the agrarian basis of South Indian history during the Chola and post-Chola periods, emphasizing the peasantry as the central element.

Caste and Peasant Life

• While acknowledging the impact of caste hierarchy and inequality, Stein argued that these factors did not negate the peasant nature of the society.
• Peasant life, despite its internal divisions and exploitation, was characterized by social, ritual, and political interdependence and cooperation.

Questioning Stein’s Views

• Stein’s portrayal of the peasantry as a homogeneous group, divided only between lower and dominant sections, is seen as problematic.
• His description of the relationship between Brahmanas and peasants as an alliance is also questioned.
• Stein viewed Brahmanas as key mediators of order and legitimacy, suggesting their interaction with peasants was a primary cultural link in rural South India.

Brahmanas and Peasants

• Stein proposed that Brahmanas established their influence in rural areas due to the declining popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, while peasants sought cohesion against external threats.
• This argument, however, is considered unconvincing by some scholars.

South Indian Village Life

• In South Indian village life, the basic unit of society was the ur, which referred to both the villages and the village assemblies. These villages were known as vellanvagai villages and were non-brahmadeya. Inscriptions reveal that these villages comprised agricultural fields, habitation areas, drinking water sources, irrigation works, pasture land, and cremation grounds.
• Within the habitation area, different quarters were designated for various groups: the ur-nattam or ur-irukkai for landowning farmers, the kammanacheri for artisans, and the paraicheri for agricultural labourers.

Social Structure

• A hierarchy of rights and statuses existed within the village, including socially and spatially segregated groups.
• The paraiyar were considered ritually impure, while the vellalar were cultivating groups, further divided into landowning farmers (kaniyudaiyar ) and tenant farmers (ulukudi ).
• The vellalar, associated with the Shudra varna, were economically powerful landholders, giving them a status comparable to the Brahmanas.
• Service groups like potters and blacksmiths may have controlled small plots of land.
• During the late Chola period, economically powerful and locally influential landlords began to emerge.

Women in Village Leadership

• Inscriptions from Karnataka reference villages headed by women, such as a 902 CE inscription mentioning a woman named Bittayya as the head of Bharangiyur village.
• A 1055 CE inscription refers to women like Chandiyabbe as a village chieftain and Jakkiyabbe as her councillor.
• Inscriptions also mention women succeeding their husbands in village leadership roles after their deaths.

Land Grants and Ownership Patterns

• The practice of royal land grants to Brahmanas in South India dates back to the 3rd/4th century and became widespread in the early medieval period.
• Karashima suggests a difference in landholding patterns between brahmadeya and non-brahmadeya villages, with communal holding prevailing in the latter.
• However, evidence of individual ownership exists in non-brahmadeya villages.
• Overall trends in landholding during the early medieval period reflect these patterns.

Land Rights and Corporate Bodies in Early Medieval South India

During the Chola period, there was a notable strengthening of individual property rights, alongside an increasing disparity in landholding sizes. Inscriptions from this era document various instances of land transfers through sale or gift, which often involved the transfer of kani rights. Kani rights referred to the possession of land, typically accompanied by certain duties and obligations.

• Chola and Pandya land grants mentioned different types of land rights, including karanmai (the right to cultivate) and mitatchi (a superior possessive right). When these terms appeared together, they indicated the right to cultivate land and ensure its cultivation. There was also the kutimai (the right of occupancy). Karanmai had two variations: kudi nikki and kudi ninga. Kudi nikki implied the removal of previous settlers, while kudi ninga meant existing settlers would not be disturbed. Some land grants even stipulated that land was granted along with the attached laborers.
• A notable aspect of early medieval South India was the presence of strong corporate bodies in both rural and urban areas. The ur was the corporate body in vellanvagai villages, consisting of tax-paying landowners. Although membership varied, it was typically fewer than ten members. The ur managed land-related matters such as sales, gifts, and tax exemptions.
• The sabha was the Brahmana assembly in brahmadeya villages, with membership criteria based on property ownership, family background, learning, and good conduct. The sabha managed landed property, including temple-associated land, collected revenue, and maintained accounts. 
• It also supervised temple-related religious activities. Disobeying the sabha's decisions was a serious offense, leading to social ostracism. Initially, Brahmana sabhas in Karnataka were small, but 11th-12th century inscriptions mention large sabhas with hundreds or thousands of members, indicating a growing Brahmana population in certain villages.

The History of Kanakatte Village in Karnataka

Kanakatte, located in the Arsikere taluk of Hassan district in southern Karnataka, has a rich history that has been reconstructed by B. D. Chattopadhyaya through the analysis of 15 inscriptions. In these inscriptions, the village is referred to as Kalikatti.

Early Inscriptions

• The earliest inscription dates back to around 890 CE during the reign of a Ganga king named Satyavakya Permanadi Rachamalla. It is found on a hero stone at Arakere and commemorates the heroic death of a samanta (local chief) named Shri Muttara, who fought against the Nolambas.
• Posthumous Reward: Shri Muttara was rewarded posthumously with the grant of two villages— Arikere and Kalikatti. This endowment was likely beneficial to his descendants.

Hoysala Period

• Rise in Prominence: Over two centuries later, Kalikatti is mentioned in inscriptions from the reign of Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (1108–42 CE). The village had become significant, described as the foremost in a territorial unit known as ‘Magare 300’.
• Inscription of 1130 CE: This inscription records mahasamanta (great chief) Singarasa of Arasikere obtaining Kalikatti and governing it. He installed a deity named Singeshvara and made land grants for the maintenance of a Shiva shrine.
• Inscription of 1132 CE: This inscription suggests that Singarasa was moved from Arasikere to Kalikatti. He continued his efforts in the village, installing a linga (a symbol of Shiva) named Bettadakalideva and making additional land grants near the village tank.

Description of Kalikatti in 1189 CE

• An inscription from 1189 CE, during the reign of Hoysala king Ballala II, describes Kalikatti as a vibrant village (ur) with well-maintained tanks (water bodies), areca palms, rice fields, and impressive temples.
• Tanks and Irrigation: The inscriptions frequently mention the big tank of the village and its sluices, indicating the importance of water management. Other tanks, such as Aduva-gere, and those named after individuals like Hariyoja, Mangeya, Boviti, and Bitteya, reflect the village's irrigation efforts.
• Agricultural Productivity: The establishment of various tanks over time suggests initiatives to expand the village’s irrigation infrastructure, leading to increased agricultural productivity.

The Change in Kalikatti

In the 12th century, inscriptions mention various samantas and mahasamantas who ruled over Kalikatti. Some of these rulers established temples and donated lands to them. By the early 13th century, Kalikatti was referred to as a sthala or a nad in inscriptions. This period saw the mention of Kalikatti's different hallis (hamlets), the construction of two new tanks, and the installation of two new deity images in temples. The hiriya-kere, an old water body, was still recognized. However, a significant transformation occurred during this time—Kalikatti evolved into an agrahara and was renamed Vijaya-Narasimhapura. The inscriptions also provide insights into the social changes that occurred in the settlement over time.

Brahmana Sabhas and the Chola Court

• There were strong connections between some Brahmana sabhas and the Chola court. Two inscriptions from Uttaramerur indicate that the sabha's resolution was made in the presence of a royal official sent by the king. Even more revealing are two inscriptions from Tanjavur, suggesting that Rajaraja I instructed the sabhas of Cholamandalam to perform various services in the Brihadishvara temple. Notable brahmadeyas in the Chola empire held taniyur status, meaning they were considered independent villages within the nadus where they were situated.

Conflicts within Rural Communities

• Inscriptions from Karnataka highlight sources of conflict within rural communities. Disputes could arise over the introduction of Brahmana donees into a village. For instance, a mid-13th century epigraph recounts how the gaudas (cultivators) of a village protested against its conversion into a brahmadeya. In response, the king sent an army to punish them by pillaging the village.
• Conflicts often revolved around village resources, with water being a particularly sensitive issue. A 1080 CE inscription from Hassan taluk describes a conflict between a Brahmana and a farmer's family over drawing water from a village tank. Similarly, an early 13th-century inscription mentions a dispute between farmers and a chief over an irrigation tank, resulting in the chief's death and the Hoysala king erecting a hero stone in his memory and constructing a new tank.

Labour Burdens on Farmers

• A 1231 CE inscription from Mannargudi during Rajaraja III's reign sheds light on the burdens of compulsory labour levies on farmers. The nattar (local leaders) of the taniyur village of Rajarajadhiraja-chaturvedimangalam complained to the Brahmana sabha and mahasabha about the excessive labour demands. The issue was not just about the amount but also the various collecting agencies demanding the same levies, some of which were armed.
• The inscription also mentions nettal (compulsory labour) imposed on villagers for repair work in the capital city, Rajarajapuram, located about 35 km from Mannargudi. Fulfilling such labour obligations would have been a challenging task for the villagers. The sabha and mahasabha of the village convened to address the complaints and specify the levies that could be imposed in the future.

Nadu and Nattar in Early Medieval South India

• Recent research indicates that the nadu, representing a locality made up of multiple settlements, whether rural or urban, was a more significant unit than the village in early medieval South India. The term nadu also denoted the assembly of the locality and was typically named after one of its villages. 
• While it is challenging to determine the exact number of nadus within the Chola kingdom, scholars like Subbarayalu have identified 140 in the Cholamandalam area and 65 in the northern regions. The number of nadus was not fixed over time, with an increase noted after the 9th century. 
• The considerable variation in the size of nadus suggests that they were not arbitrary administrative divisions imposed by the state. Similar clusters of villages were present in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms, where they were referred to as kottam in Pallava inscriptions. However, such units appeared to be absent in the Chera kingdom.

Role of Nattar

• Members of the nadu assembly, known as the nattar, were influential in the region and played a crucial role in various administrative functions. They were responsible for land assessment, tax collection, and managing irrigation works. The nattar was also involved in passing on taxes to the king's nadu-level officers.
• Nattar members were custodians of land donations made to temples and oversaw gifts made by others. Initially composed mainly of dominant landowners, the nadu assembly expanded in the 12th and 13th centuries to include landowning artisans and merchants.
• The nadu served as the basic unit of revenue, with the nattar playing a vital role in revenue matters. They were also addressed in royal inscriptions, highlighting their significance in the local governance structure.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The growth of the agricultural economy was influenced by several factors, including the expansion of agricultural land through reclamation, the adoption of irrigation techniques, and an increase in the variety of crops. The rise in the area under cultivation is evident from instances where recipients of land grants were granted rights over forested areas, references to nearby forests in gifted land, and mentions of the transfer of wasteland to the donee.

• There is also direct evidence supporting this expansion. For example, a 6th-century inscription from the Kadambas, who ruled over the Goa region, granted a Brahmana donee the right to engage laborers to clear a forested area and bring it under cultivation. 
• The inscription also refers to the reclamation of coastal land and its conversion into rice fields by damming seawater.

Irrigation Devices in Early Medieval Tamil Nadu

James Heitzman studied Chola inscriptions from five taluks in central Tamil Nadu—Kumbakonam, Tiruchirappalli, Tirukkoyilur, Tirutturaipundi, and Pudukkottai—to analyze the distribution and evolution of irrigation technology during the Chola period. These inscriptions often mention irrigation works such as tanks, wells, canals, and sluices, particularly in the context of land boundaries.

• In Kumbakonam and Tiruchirappalli taluks, there was a strong reliance on canals for irrigation, constituting 85 per cent and 84 per cent of the mentioned works, respectively. Kumbakonam is located in the lower Kaveri valley, while Tiruchirappalli is further upstream.
• In Tirutturaippundi taluk, canals made up 79 per cent of the irrigation works mentioned, with tanks accounting for 15 per cent.
• Pudukkottai taluk showed a balance with 49 per cent of references to canals and 38 per cent to tanks.
• Tirukkoyilur taluk had 60 per cent of references to canals and 23 per cent to tanks.
• Sluices and wells were less frequently mentioned, constituting 4.7 per cent and 5.4 per cent of references, respectively.
• The differences in irrigation technology among various sub-regions were largely ecological, determined by the suitability of specific technologies to the terrain. Interestingly, the patterns of irrigation observed in these areas today show remarkable similarities to those revealed in the inscriptions.

In early medieval Tamil Nadu, irrigation was primarily managed through canals and tanks. Over time, there were notable shifts in their usage: Kumbakonam and Tirukkoyilur taluks saw an increase in canal references and a decrease in tank mentions. In contrast, Pudukkottai taluk experienced a decline in canal references. Kumbakonam Taluk : Irrigation network development predates the Chola period, with its fundamental nature remaining consistent during Chola rule. Tirukkoyilur Taluk : Initially reliant on tanks for irrigation, there was a gradual shift towards greater reliance on river-fed canals. Pudukkottai Taluk : Canal development likely peaked in the 11th century and subsequently plateaued. Tiruchirappalli Taluk : Investment in canals was low during the 11th century but increased in the 12th century.

Betel Leaves and Areca Nuts

Betel leaf and areca nut chewing is a common practice in South and Southeast Asia, with a history dating back thousands of years.

Betel Leaves and Areca Nuts: A Longstanding Tradition

• Origin: Betel leaves ( tambula in Sanskrit) and areca nuts ( guvaka ) have a long history in Southeast Asia, with evidence of areca nut use dating back to 10,000–7000 BCE in Thailand.
• Introduction to South India: These commodities likely made their way to South India in the early centuries CE.
• Historical Mentions: The chewing of betel leaf is referenced in ancient texts such as the Jataka stories, Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, and works by Kalidasa and Shudraka.

Cultivation in South India

• Early Cultivation: The cultivation of betel leaf and areca nut in South India was established by around the 5th century CE, as mentioned in the Pattuppattu.
• Inscriptions: Inscriptions from the 11th–12th centuries indicate widespread cultivation, with land gifted to temples often including betel vines and areca gardens.

Increasing Demand

• 11th Century Inscriptions: References to betel leaves and areca nuts increased in inscriptions, reflecting growing demand.
• Harvesting and Processing: An 11th-century inscription outlines the roles of workers in harvesting (koylasis) and processing (mottakaras) areca nuts for sale.

Role in Temple Rituals

• Integration into Rituals: Betel leaf and areca nut became integral to temple rituals, alongside traditional offerings like boiled rice and incense.
• Social Significance: Betel leaf was used as a gesture of friendship and honour, as noted by early Arab writers and in inscriptions from the Chola period.
• Royal Preference: Chewing betel leaf was popular among kings and nobles, as highlighted by a 12th-century Chinese traveller.

Trade Networks in Western India: Betel Leaf and Areca Nut

• Betel leaf and areca nut were significant commodities in the trade networks of western India.
• An inscription from 1145 CE in Mangrol, a port on the Saurashtra coast, mentions a levy on betel leaf arriving at the port, likely from South India.
• This indicates the presence of special godowns for storing betel leaf and shops selling it in the area.

Spread of Pan Chewing

• The habit of chewing pan (betel leaf with areca nut) spread rapidly across the subcontinent.
• Initially, it was an elite habit, as suggested by ancient texts like the Dvyashrayakavya of Hemachandra.
• The Rajatarangini’s story of king Ananta being in debt to a betel leaf seller indicates that some betel sellers made significant profits.

Medicinal Properties and Fashionable Habit

• Ancient medical treatises suggest the medicinal properties of betel leaf and areca nut.
• Al-Biruni noted that Indians ate betel leaves with lime after dinner for their digestive benefits and that areca nut was good for teeth, gums, and stomach due to its astringent properties.
• However, beyond their perceived medicinal benefits, consuming betel leaf and areca nut became a fashionable habit for those who could afford it.
• This trend is comparable to the later widespread popularity of addictive commodities like tea, coffee, and tobacco.

Changes in Land Use and Crop Cultivation

• The extension of cultivation margins, the spread of irrigation, and changes in market demand led to shifts in land use patterns.
• In the Karnataka region, there was a growing emphasis on various millets such as priyangu (panicum italicum), ragi (eleusine coracana), jowar (sorghum vulgare), and bajra (bulrush millet).
• Cultivation of inferior rice varieties such as shyamaka, nivara, kangu, kodrava, and karadusha also increased.
• Cash crops like sugarcane, betel leaves, areca nuts, coconuts, oranges, and spices like black pepper and ginger were increasingly grown.

Urban Processes

The early medieval period marks a significant phase of urban growth in South India. The idea of urban decline does not apply to this region. Cities during this time served various roles, including political, manufacturing, trade, and sacred or ceremonial centers.

Nagarams: Market and Commercial Centers

• Nagarams were urban spaces primarily involved in the production and exchange of goods, including agricultural produce, at local, inter-regional, or international levels.
• A nadu (a administrative division) could have multiple nagarams.
• Some nagarams, like important brahmadeyas (land grants), were granted taniyur status, making them independent of the nadu’s jurisdiction.
• The nagaram had a corporate body of merchants called the nagarattar, who were also involved in land management. They owned and managed land known as nagarakkani, from which they collected revenue.

Growth in the Chola Period

• Nagarams became increasingly important during the Chola period, with nagarattar frequently appearing as donors in inscriptions.
• The peak of their donations, mostly in money, gold, and silver, occurred in the middle Chola period.
• This period also saw the emergence of specialized corporate organizations such as:
• Saliya nagaram: Associated with the textile trade.
• Sattum Parishatta nagaram: Also connected with textiles.
• Shankarappadi nagaram: A corporate group of oil and ghee suppliers.
• Paraga nagaram: A group of seafaring merchants.
• Vaniya nagaram: A powerful organization of oil merchants.

Improvements in Craft Techniques

• There were notable advancements in craft techniques during this period, such as:
• Hand oil mills: These were replaced by bullock-driven oil mills for oil pressing.
• Textile Weaving: The textile weaving industry also saw improvements, with mentions in inscriptions of grants for setting up looms.

Centres of Craft Production

• Various centres of craft production emerged, some of which had continuous growth from the early historical period.
• Kanchipuram: This city, located in a major cotton-growing region, became one of the most important weaving centres from the early historical period.
• Expansion: Many other weaving centres developed around Kanchipuram, as well as in the Tanjavur and South Arcot districts.
• Land Ownership: By the 12th–13th centuries, weavers and merchants began investing in land and becoming part of the landowning elite.

Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram

• Tanjavur was situated on the southern bank of the Vadavaru River, on the southwestern edge of the fertile Kaveri delta, known for its rich agriculture. 
• Gangaikondacholapuram, another royal city, was located on the northern edge of this delta. Before the Chola period, there was a settlement called Tanjai, which was transformed into a major royal and temple city during the reign of Rajaraja I. 
• The Brihadishvara temple was the central feature of Tanjavur, dominating the city and forming its core.

City Structure and Economy

• The area around the temple constituted the city’s inner circuit, where the political and priestly elites resided. Surrounding this was an outer residential circuit, home to other urban groups like merchants. 
• The city had four markets (angadis) that catered to the temple’s demands for materials such as milk, ghee, and flowers, as well as services provided by priests, temple women, musicians, washermen, and watchmen. 
• Special performances were held in the temple on the birth asterisms of royal family members, and both the king and his family made numerous gifts to the temple. The temple’s sculptural ornamentation and paintings carried significant political meaning.

Construction and Management of the Brihadishvara Temple

• The Brihadishvara temple was a major construction project that likely took 7 to 8 years to complete. It attracted various areas and groups into its economic network, with inscriptions indicating that over 600 employees were drawn from different parts of the Chola kingdom to work at the temple. 
• Revenue for the temple’s maintenance came from distant villages, including some in Sri Lanka. The financial management of the temple was overseen by Brahmana sabhas from several villages, while local farmers, herdsmen, and artisans supplied many of its needs.
• Kudamukku and Palaiyarai, situated next to each other in the fertile Kaveri delta, represent another significant urban complex from the period. Kudamukku was a sacred center, while Palaiyarai housed the Chola palace complex. Although these settlements have a long history, they gained prominence during the Chola era.
• Kudamukku, known for its temples and mentioned in the bhakti songs of the Al-vars and Nayanars, experienced growth due to endowments from the royal family, officials, merchants, and artisans. The Nageshvara temple became the most prominent shrine here. Kudamukku was also a crucial point on trade routes, specializing in betel nut and areca nut cultivation, as well as crafts like metal work and textiles. A Chola mint was likely located here.
• Palaiyarai, with a history dating back to the 7th century, rose to prominence as an administrative center and the residential capital of the Cholas. Both Kudamukku and Palaiyarai were intricately connected to their rural and coastal hinterlands.
• Madurai and Kanchipuram have a long history as political centers and hubs of commodity production, especially cotton textiles, and religious activity. In the early medieval period, both cities grew in size and significance. Kanchipuram, a major center of weaving and commerce, was referred to as a managaram (big city) in inscriptions and texts. 
• Initially connected to the port of Nirppeyyarru on the Palar river, Kanchipuram later identified Mamallapuram as its primary port. The expansion of Kanchipuram’s hinterland was facilitated by land grants and the growing temple economy. In addition to its economic role, Kanchipuram held cultural importance as a center of Buddhism, Jainism, Vishnuism, and Shivaism.
• Early medieval urban developments influenced caste organization in Karnataka. New trading castes like the Garvares, comprising northern merchants who migrated south in the 10th to 11th centuries, emerged. Other occupational groups, such as the gaudas and heggades, evolved into castes. The gaudas, initially cultivators or village headmen, and the heggades, originally revenue officials, became recognized castes. Additionally, the professional scribes known as the karanas, similar to the kayasthas, also developed into a distinct caste.

Weavers and Weaving in Early Medieval Tamil Nadu

Overview of Weaving Communities

• Detailed research by Vijaya Ramaswamy on South Indian weavers from the 10th to 17th centuries shows a consistent pattern between historical textile centres and those of today.
• The Saliyar and Kaikkolar communities were the most prominent weaving groups in early medieval Tamil Nadu.
• During the Chola period, the Kaikkolar community appeared to have combined weaving with military roles.
• Weavers had designated residential areas in towns, often situated near temples, as seen in Tanjavur.

Textiles and Techniques

• Historical texts and inscriptions provide insights into the varieties of textiles and manufacturing techniques used.
• Muslins (called sella ) and chintz (referred to as vichitra ) were highly sought after.
• Natural dyes such as red safflower, indigo, and madder were commonly used.
• Block printing became popular in South India from the 12th century.
• Artisans employed both vertical and horizontal looms, with patterned looms becoming common in the 11th century.

Organization and Trade

• The textile industry was well-organized, and textiles were significant commodities in both internal and external trade.
• Weavers sold their products at local fairs, while powerful merchant guilds controlled the higher levels of the textile trade.
• There is evidence of weavers’ guilds with various names such as samaya pattagara, saliya samayangal, and seniya pattagara.
• Ramaswamy notes the migration of some weaver castes within South India, possibly during the Vijayanagara period (15th–16th centuries), which marked a peak in the weaving industry.

Chola Patronage and Taxation

• The Chola dynasty actively promoted the weaving industry and collected revenue from it through various taxes.
• Inscriptions mention several taxes such as tari irai or tari kadamai (loom tax), achchu tari (possibly a tax on patterned looms), tari pudavai (likely a tax on cloth), panjupeeli (tax on cotton yarn), parutti kadamai (tax on cotton), nulayam (tax on cotton thread), and kaibanna or bannige (tax on dyers).
• A tax called pattadai nulayam was imposed on silk thread.
• The state also offered tax concessions and remissions to attract weavers to new settlements.
• Kulottunga I, a Chola ruler, was known for abolishing customs duties at ports to promote trade, earning him the title Sungam tavirta Cholan (remover of customs duties).

Economic Involvement of Weavers

• Weavers were not only involved in temple donations but also invested in land and engaged in money-lending activities.
• The Madras Museum copper plates from the Uttama Chola period indicate that the king entrusted money to certain groups of weavers for organizing a festival at the temple of Uragam in Kanchipuram.
• Some weavers were entrusted with managerial roles in temples, overseeing finances and maintaining accounts. In recognition of their contributions, they were exempted from certain taxes.

Emergence of Caste Groupings

• A significant development during this period was the emergence of a supra-caste dichotomy known as the idangai (left hand) and valangai (right hand) caste groupings.
• The right-hand group primarily consisted of agricultural castes, while the left-hand group comprised mostly artisanal and trading communities.
• Initially, these groupings were not antagonistic, but over time, elements of conflict began to emerge between them.

Trade and Traders

Trade Routes and Ports: In ancient South India, trade routes converged at various ports along the eastern coast. Notable ports included:

• Mamallapuram: Flourished under the Pallavas.
• Nagapattinam: Gained prominence during the Chola period.
• Kaveripattinam: Important but less so than Nagapattinam from the 11th century onwards.
• Tiruppalaivanam and Mayilarppil: Coastal towns serving areas north of Kanchipuram.
• Kovalam and Tiruvadandai: Located north of Mamallapuram.
• Sadras and Pudupattinam: Situated south of Mamallapuram.
• Other Coastal Towns: Included Pallavapattinam, Cuddalore, and Tiruvendipuram.
• Role of Merchant Guilds: Corporate organizations of merchants played a crucial role in setting customs duties on goods in these port towns.
• Quilon (Kollam): This western coast port town had inscriptions indicating agreements between the Manigramam guild, foreign traders, and the king. These agreements covered issues like taxes, warehouses, and the protection of merchants and their goods.
• Types of Trade: The ports and market towns were engaged in both transit trade and direct trade with distant regions. The trade involved a wide range of goods, including staples and luxury items.
• Goods Traded:11th Century: Inscriptions from this period mention goods such as rice, pulses, sesame, salt, pepper, oil, cloth, betel leaf, areca nut, and metals. 12th Century: A broader range of commodities was noted, including wheat, food grains, groundnut, jaggery, sugar, cotton, spices, elephants, and gems.
• Luxury Items: Inscriptions from places like Shikarpur (Karnataka) mention merchants transporting luxury items like sandalwood, camphor, musk, and various precious gems.
• Imports: Items imported included aloeswood, sandalwood, silk, rose water, and horses, often sourced from regions like Southeast Asia, Arabia, and China.

12th Century Vishnu Temple, Angkor Wat, Cambodia: A Reflection of Cultural Interaction between India and Southeast Asia

The 12th-century Vishnu Temple at Angkor Wat in Cambodia is a remarkable example of the cultural exchange between India and Southeast Asia. This temple showcases the influence of Indian architecture and religious practices in the region during that period.

Historical Context

• The interaction between the elites of South, Southeast, and East Asia was reciprocal, with both sides contributing to cultural and religious developments.
• The larger Leiden grant mentions the king of Shri Vijaya and Kadaram sponsoring the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam, with Rajaraja Chola also providing land for its upkeep.

Trade and Diplomatic Relations

• Inscriptions indicate various gifts made by the kings of Shri Vijaya and Kadaram to deities in Nagapattinam temples.
• The Khmer king sent gifts to Rajendra I, while Rajaraja Chola established trade relations with China, as evidenced by Chinese sources mentioning Chola tribute missions.
• These missions brought valuable goods such as elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, pearls, and textiles, some of which were in high demand in China.

Merchant Guilds and Trade

• J. C. van Leur’s theory of India–Southeast Asia trade being controlled by small peddlers is challenged by evidence of powerful merchant guilds in early medieval South India.
• Corporate merchant organizations, known as samaya, became prominent from the 10th century, with the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds playing significant roles in long-distance trade.
• The Ayyavole, originally from Aihole in Karnataka, became a major supra-regional merchant association, while the Manigramam, based in Tamil Nadu, was subordinated to the Ayyavole in the 13th century.
• Membership in these guilds cut across caste and religious lines, and they had links with craft specialist associations.

Geographic Spread and Influence

• Guild inscriptions have been found in South India, Sri Lanka, and East and Southeast Asia, indicating the widespread influence of these merchant associations.
• The Ayyavole was eulogized in an inscription found at Padaviya in Sri Lanka, and a 1088 CE inscription of the guild was discovered in Sumatra.
• The Manigramam established a base in Takuapa, Thailand, with evidence of Indian artefacts and inscriptions suggesting an autonomous settlement of Tamil traders.
• In China, the discovery of Hindu images and a Tamil–Chinese inscription in Quanzhou indicates the presence of a Tamil merchant colony in the 13th/14th century.

The Religious Sphere

Religious developments in early medieval India show continuities with the preceding centuries and can be reconstructed on the basis of religious texts, inscriptions, architecture, and sculptural remains. At the level of popular worship, the focus was on devotional worship in temples and on pilgrimage. 

• The Hindu cults, especially those associated with the worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, became increasingly popular. The Tantric tradition became more visible and exerted its influence over Hindu, Buddhist and, to a lesser extent, Jaina traditions. While the Hindu cults were fairly widespread throughout the subcontinent, Buddhism and Jainism had a more restricted provenance. Jainism held sway in western India and Karnataka, while the strongholds of Buddhism were located in eastern India and Kashmir. The age-old naga cults still held their ground, as evident in the importance of the worship of Nilamata naga in Kashmir.
• The relationship between different cults and sects was partly marked by interaction and a certain level of syncretism. For instance, the Jaina tirthankara Rishabha was turned into an avatara of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana. As already mentioned, certain Puranas include the Buddha among the incarnations of Vishnu. A verse in Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda refers to the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Keshava (Vishnu). 
• The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore has a large image of a seated Buddha to the right of the main gateway, and the Buddha under a bodhi tree is depicted in some relief carvings around the temple. At the same time, the relationship between religious traditions and sects could also be marked by tensions and rivalry, an example of which is the hostility between Shaivas and Jainas in South India. Such antagonism was sometimes expressed in graphic iconic form, for instance in sculptures of deities trampling on their rivals.
• Many early medieval sites show a juxtaposition of shrines belonging to different religious traditions. One of the most spectacular instances of this is at Ellora, in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. From the 6th century CE onwards, artisans began chiselling a series of Buddhist caves at the southern end of the basalt lava outcrop, as well as several Hindu caves and shrines at the
• The Kailashanatha temple, built in the 8th to 9th centuries, is one of the most impressive shrines at Ellora. During the same period, Jaina caves were added to the northern end of Ellora. At Badami in Karnataka, caves dedicated to Vaishnava, Shaiva, and Jaina traditions are found next to each other, showcasing the coexistence of different religious practices.
• The early medieval period also marked the arrival of Islam in the subcontinent. Arab merchants settled in various parts of western India, and by the 13th century, the Muslim population in these regions included not only Arab traders but also local oilmen and masons. Inscriptions from this period record the building of mosques by wealthy traders. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate led to an increase in the Muslim population in the subcontinent.
• Various sections of society patronized religious shrines during this period. Political support for certain temples, especially after the 10th century, led to the rise of royal temples. Religious cults became an important part of emerging regional cultures, and religious identities became more distinct. For example, historian David Lorenzen argues that a self-conscious Hindu identity developed during the medieval period in response to Islam.
• While it is not possible to cover all the developments in the religious history of the subcontinent, a few key developments are summarized, with a closer look at Vaishnava and Shaiva bhakti in South India.

Buddhism in Early Medieval India

Xuanzang observed numerous large and thriving monasteries in the Magadha region, including Nalanda, Tilodaka, and Bodh Gaya. However, he also noted many deserted or dilapidated monasteries in other areas. The Chinese pilgrim dedicated over five years to studying the Yogachara doctrine at Nalanda. Similarly, Yijing visited Bodh Gaya and Tilodaka, the latter of which he described as having around 1,000 monks.

Xuanzang's Observations on Monasteries

• Construction and Design: Xuanzang provided a general overview of the monasteries during that period, highlighting their skilled construction. He noted features such as a three-storeyed tower on each side, doors and windows that were richly painted, and low walls.
• Monks' Cells: The monks' cells were designed to be plain on the outside but ornately decorated on the inside.
• Assembly Halls and Chambers: Monasteries typically included large, high assembly halls situated in the middle of the building, along with storeyed chambers and turrets of varying heights, all with doors facing east.

Textual and Archaeological Evidence

• Textual Sources and Inscriptions: These sources provide information about the locations of monasteries from the early medieval period.
• Archaeological Remains: Many of the monasteries mentioned in historical texts have been identified through archaeological remains, confirming their existence and significance during that time.

Xuanzang's Reply to Prajnadeva

After returning to China in 645 CE, Xuanzang devoted himself to translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Chinese at the Tz'u-en Monastery in Chang'an. During this time, he kept in touch with several monks he had met in India, including Prajnadeva, a senior monk at the Mahabodhi Monastery in Bodh Gaya. Prajnadeva had sent Xuanzang a hymn he composed and a gift of cotton cloth, offering to provide any Buddhist texts Xuanzang might need. In response to Prajnadeva's kindness, Xuanzang expressed his gratitude and shared updates about his work and thoughts.

Prajnadeva's Kindness

• Xuanzang received a letter from Bhikshu Dharmadirgha, along with gifts of cotton cloth and a hymn from Prajnadeva.
• Xuanzang felt embarrassed by Prajnadeva's generosity, believing he did not deserve such kindness.

Xuanzang's Reflection on Prajnadeva

• Xuanzang admired Prajnadeva and expressed his longing to reconnect, noting how much he missed their communication.
• He praised Prajnadeva for his deep understanding of various Buddhist schools, his ability to guide people along the right path, and his skill in engaging with influential figures.

Memories of India

• Xuanzang recalled his time in India, particularly the debates they had in Kanyakubja, where they discussed the Mahayana and Hinayana schools of thought in front of princes and a large audience.
• Despite the heated nature of their debate, Xuanzang appreciated how they did not hold grudges against each other afterward.

Apology and Respect

• Xuanzang acknowledged Prajnadeva's apology for any past disagreements, finding it commendable and a sign of his character.
• Xuanzang's letter to a fellow monk, expressing admiration for his qualities and encouraging him to embrace Mahayana Buddhism over other schools. Xuanzang believes Mahayana is superior in reasoning and argument, and urges the monk to reconsider his reservations. He also mentions sending a memento and requests the return of lost scriptures.

Decline and Resurgence of Buddhism in India

Decline of Buddhism (11th Century Onwards)

• Buddhist monasteries in Kashmir, such as Jayendra and Raja monasteries, faced decline by the 11th century.
• Despite this decline, some monasteries like Ratnagupta and Ratnarashmi in Anupamapura thrived during the 11th and 12th centuries.
• In regions like Sanchi, Amaravati, and Sindh, Buddhism continued to flourish for several centuries.
• The Palas of Bengal and Bihar were significant patrons of Buddhism, supporting various monasteries like Nalanda, Odantapura, Vikramashila, and Somapuri.
• Active interactions occurred between Tibetan monks and these Buddhist centres, facilitating the exchange of ideas and practices.

Resurgence of Buddhism in Other Regions

• Early medieval remains of Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and sculptures were discovered in Orissa, particularly at Lalitagiri and Ratnagiri.
• Nepal saw the construction of several Buddhist viharas during this period, indicating a resurgence of Buddhist practices.
• Regions like Ladakh, Lahul, and Spiti also witnessed the establishment of Buddhist viharas, contributing to the spread of Buddhism in these areas.
• The Tantric form of Buddhism emerged as a dominant practice at major monastic centres, reflecting the evolving nature of Buddhist traditions in India.

Evolution of Buddhist Worship and Rituals

Early Medieval Period: Varied Iconography and Devotional Practices

• Early medieval Buddhist images exhibited a wide range of iconographic forms, reflecting the diversity and popularity of devotional worship during this time.
• The Bodhicharyavatara by Shantideva, an 8th-century text, describes Mahayana worship rituals that included:
• Bathing the image with scented water
• Offering food, flowers, and clothes
• Swinging censers and burning incense
• Performing vocal and instrumental music

Donative Inscriptions and Ritual Provisions

• Inscriptions from the Maitrakas of Valabhi indicate provisions for covering the costs of incense, lamps, oil, and flowers (dhupa-dipa-taila-pushpa) for rituals.
• This highlights the importance of these offerings in early medieval Buddhist worship.

Rise of Tantric Buddhism

• The early medieval period also saw the rise of Tantric Buddhism, which integrated ritual, magic, and meditation.
• The earliest texts of this tradition, such as the Manjushrimulakalpa and the Guhyasamaja (5th–6th centuries), laid the foundation for Tantric practices.

Vajrayana: The Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle

• Tantric Buddhism, known as Vajrayana, emphasized the thunderbolt and diamond as symbols of power and strength, representing individuals who had attained siddhi (enlightenment).
• The vajra-sceptre and bell became crucial elements in Vajrayana ritual paraphernalia.

Mantrayana: The Vehicle of Mantras

• Another aspect of Tantric Buddhism was Mantrayana, which focused on the use of mantras as a means to achieve spiritual perfection.
• The six-syllable mantra Om mani padme hum, associated with Avalokiteshvara, was especially significant.
• This mantra, with its sacred sounds and symbolic meanings, was believed to possess great spiritual potency.

Role of Female Deities and Siddhas

• Female deities, particularly Tara, held a prominent place in the Vajrayana pantheon.
• Siddhas or Tantra-gurus, the exponents of Tantric Buddhism, played a crucial role in disseminating these teachings.

Hevajra Tantra and Sahajayana

• The Hevajra Tantra proposed liberation through the sublimation of sexual energy, involving complex rituals.
• In contrast, the Sahajayana path, taught by the mahasiddha Saraha, emphasized intuition and direct instruction by a guru, allowing for a liberated state while engaging in worldly life.
• The Sahajiyas, particularly influential in Bengal, rejected intricate philosophy and devotional practices in favor of intuitive understanding for salvation.

Decline of Buddhism in the Subcontinent

Buddhism did not vanish entirely from the Indian subcontinent, but it did experience a decline, becoming confined to the geographical, political, and cultural peripheries. Several factors have been proposed to explain this decline:

• Identity Crisis: Buddhism struggled to maintain a distinct identity in relation to the rising Hindu cults.
• Tantric Influences: The increasing influence of Tantric practices contributed to a perceived 'degeneration' within Buddhism.
• Resurgent Hinduism: A resurgent Hinduism, particularly represented by thinkers like Shankara, posed a significant challenge to Buddhist practices and beliefs.
• Turkish Invasions: The Turkish invasions led to the destruction of several major Buddhist monastic centres, which were prominent and easily identifiable targets.

Despite these challenges, some monasteries established in Tibet and the western Himalayas during this period have a continuous history that extends to the present day. However, the specifics of Buddhism's history in early medieval India, particularly the reasons for dwindling lay support and patronage, remain unclear.

Social Aspects of Tantric Buddhism

Miranda Shaw's Study

• Women and Men in Tantric Buddhism: Miranda Shaw's research suggests that both women and men are essential to the Tantric way, capable of forming non-exploitative, non-coercive, and mutually enlightening relationships.
• Union of Male and Female Buddhas: This idea is reflected in the image of a male and female Buddha united as a symbol of enlightenment.
• Role of Women: Shaw argues that women played a crucial role in the creation of Tantric Buddhism and participated actively as teachers, students, practitioners, and innovators.

Ronald M. Davidson's Analysis

• Tantric Buddhism and Social Change: Davidson attempts to connect Tantric Buddhism with broader political, social, and economic changes in the early medieval period.
• Samantization of Gods: He suggests a 'samantization' of the gods, where deities, like kings, were organized into a hierarchy of supremacy and subordination.
• Political Resonance: Tantric Buddhism's metaphor of individual kingship and dominion reflects political themes of the time.

Evolution of New Buddhist Forms

• Collapse of Old Support: New forms of Buddhism had to navigate the collapse of traditional sources of support and patronage.
• Formation of New Networks: Siddhas (spiritual practitioners) developed new networks of political patronage and engaged with tribal and outcaste groups.
• Growth of Monasteries: Some monasteries evolved into mahaviharas (great monasteries) and became substantial landowners.
• Decline of Women's Participation: There was a noticeable decline in women's participation at both monastic and lay levels, evident from the lack of inscriptions highlighting their roles across the subcontinent.

Major Centres of Jainism

Jainism flourished in various regions of India, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka. Historical accounts, such as that of the Chinese monk Xuanzang, indicate that the Digambara sect of Jainism was more widely practiced than the Shvetambara sect during certain periods.

Jainism received significant royal patronage from various dynasties:

• In Gujarat, the Chapas were notable patrons.
• The Paramara kings in central India also supported Jain establishments.
• In peninsular India, dynasties such as the Gangas, Rashtrakutas, Eastern and Western Chalukyas, and the Kadambas were patrons of Jaina scholars and institutions.

During this period, a large number of Jaina works were composed in various languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Kannada, and Tamil. Notable Jaina philosophers and logicians from this era include:

• Akalanka, who lived in the 8th century and was known for his work Tattvartharajavarttika, a significant text in Jain logic.
• Haribhadra, also a logician, wrote commentaries on earlier works and was known for his critique of Buddhist and Brahmanical doctrines in texts like Anekantajayapataka.
• Vidyananda, a 9th-century scholar from Pataliputra, authored works such as Aptamimam-salamkrita, which explored principles of logic.

The Adi Purana, written by Jinasena and Gunabhadra in the 8th century, outlined a set of life-cycle rituals (samskaras) that, while resembling Brahmanical practices, were given distinct Jaina interpretations. The text also reflected Brahmanical biases, stating that Shudras were excluded from certain higher religious practices, including monkhood.

The Huge Statue of Gommateshvara in Shravana Belagola

• Shravana Belagola is a small town in the Channarayapatna taluk of Hassan district in Karnataka, India, and is a significant pilgrimage site for Jains. The town's name comes from the Sanskrit word "shramana," meaning 'ascetic,' and the Kannada word "bela-kola," meaning 'white tank.' It is situated between two rocky hills called Chandragiri (or Chikkabetta) and Vindhyagiri (or Indragiri, also known as Doddabetta).
• There are 37 Jaina temples in Shravana Belagola, built between the 8th and 18th centuries. A Jaina monastery in the town features mural paintings from the 17th to 18th centuries. The town is also home to over 500 inscriptions that detail its history. However, Shravana Belagola is most famous for its enormous 17.5-meter-high statue of Gommateshvara, also known as Bahubali. This statue is considered the tallest free-standing monolithic sculpture in the world.
• According to Jain tradition, Gommata or Bahubali is the son of Adinatha, the first tirthankara. Inscriptions from the 10th century in Kannada, Tamil, and Marathi, found at the base of the statue, indicate that it was commissioned by Chamunda Raja, a minister of the Ganga king Rachamalla (Rajamalla), who ruled from 974 to 984 CE.
• The statue of Bahubali, carved from light-grey granite, is located atop a hill and can be seen from a distance of up to 10 kilometers, although it is not visible from the base of the hill. The statue is carved in the round up to the knees, where it merges with the rock. The surface of the statue is highly polished. Bahubali is depicted standing in the Kayotsarga pose, with his arms and legs stiff and unbent, and his arms not touching his body. His feet rest on a full-blown lotus.
• Bahubali's figure is characterized by broad shoulders, a slim waist, and a wide pelvis. His hair is curly, and he has a broad face with a well-shaped chin and nose. He has long earlobes and unusually long arms, which are signs of a mahapurusha (great man). Creepers entwine his arms and legs, and anthills rise to his thighs, symbolizing his extraordinary penance. His expression is calm and resolute, with a subtle smile reflecting inner tranquility. Flanking him are carvings of a yaksha and yakshi.
• Every 12 years, a ceremony called mahamastabhisheka takes place, where devotees pour offerings such as milk, flowers, and jewels over the head of the statue. The most recent mahamastabhisheka was held in 2006.

Jainism in Early Medieval Period

During the early medieval period, Jainism had a significant presence in various regions of India, with notable temples and inscriptions reflecting its influence.

Jaina Shrines and Temples

• Jaina shrines from the early medieval period were found in modern Uttar Pradesh, particularly in places like Deogarh and Mathura.
• The Dilwara temples in Mount Abu are among the most impressive Jaina temples from this period.
• Jaina centres in Gujarat included Bhrigukachchha, Girnar, and Valabhi, the latter famous for its temples dedicated to Chandraprabha and Mahavira.
• In central India, Jaina establishments were present at Sonagiri and Khajuraho.
• Western India had established Jaina centres at Nasik and Pratishthana, with Jaina caves also found at Ellora.
• In Orissa, Jaina sites at Udayagiri and Khandagiri continued to thrive during this period.

Jainism in Karnataka and Southern India

• Jainism was robust in the Karnataka region, as evidenced by the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, which mentions the poet Ravikirti and his role in building a temple.
• Jaina temples and inscriptions have been discovered in places like Shravana Belagola, Koppana, and Halebid.
• Inscriptions from the reigns of Pallava, Chola, and Pandya kings in Tamil Nadu mention various Jaina saints, such as Ajjanandi, Indusena, and Mallisena.
• Jaina inscriptions in places like Shravana Belagola provide long lists of pontifical succession, indicating the continuity and importance of Jain leadership over the centuries.

Conclusion

• By the end of the early medieval period, Jainism maintained a significant presence in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka, with a rich heritage of temples, inscriptions, and a continuous line of religious leaders.

Shankara and Advaita Vedanta

During the early medieval period in India, there was a surge of philosophical writings across various darshanas, or schools of thought. One of the most significant figures from this time was Shankara, who lived in the late 8th and early 9th centuries. However, distinguishing historical facts from legends in Shankara's life stories is challenging, as these accounts were written after the 14th century.

• One of the most famous biographies, the Shankara-digvijaya by Madhava, portrays Shankara as a wandering philosopher who debated and defeated various opponents throughout India. Shankara is best known for his contributions to Vedanta, particularly his interpretation known as Advaita Vedanta.
• The term "Vedanta" means the end part ( anta ) of the Vedas, and it refers to the Upanishads, which are the basis for this philosophy. The Upanishads, along with texts like Badarayana's Brahma Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita, form the core of Vedanta philosophy. The earliest detailed explanation of Advaita Vedanta was by Gaudapada in the 7th or 8th century. His work, the Mandukyakarika, is a commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad and reflects influences from Buddhist thought, particularly Madhyamika and Vijnanavada Buddhism.
• Gaudapada argued that physical objects are akin to dream phenomena, suggesting that reality is fundamentally one ( a-dvaita ) and that the perception of diversity arises from maya, or illusion. Shankara expanded on Gaudapada's ideas, aiming to show that the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras present a coherent philosophical system. In his commentary on the Brahma Sutra, Shankara emphasized the distinction between Vedic sacrifices, which are aimed at material gains, and the Upanishads, which offer the path to ultimate knowledge.
• Central to Shankara's philosophy is the concept of brahman as the ultimate reality, which is without qualities ( nirguna ), pure consciousness, and unchanging. He proposed that change and multiplicity are merely apparent. Shankara also introduced the idea of two levels of reality: conventional and absolute. 
• For instance, when a person mistakes a coiled rope for a snake, they are confusing conventional reality with absolute reality. This confusion arises from ignorance ( avidya ). The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth by realizing the oneness of the atman (individual soul) with brahman (universal consciousness).
• Some scholars believe that Shankara's strong support for a philosophy rooted in the Vedic tradition contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India. Interestingly, his critics labeled him a "hidden Buddhist" because they thought his view of the world as an illusion was similar to Mahayana Buddhist ideas. However, it's important to note that while defending his interpretation of the Upanishads, Shankara also addressed objections from other philosophical schools, including Buddhism, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa, offering strong critiques of their viewpoints.
• Shankara is believed to have founded the Dashanami sect and established four or five monasteries known as the Amanaya mathas. While some form of organization for preserving and propagating Shankara's teachings emerged early on, many historians argue that the mathas, such as those at Shringeri and Kanchi, were established several centuries later and attributed to Shankara to enhance their prestige. For example, the Shringeri matha is thought to have been founded in the 14th century during the Vijayanagara period.