The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE - 2 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Kalibangan: Main Street

House Walls

• The mature Harappan settlement on the western mound at Kalibangan was divided into two parts by an inner wall with stairs on either side. The southern sector had no houses, but is noted for a series of mud-brick platforms with a row of seven clay-plastered pits. Nearby were a well and bath pavements. 
• The pits have been interpreted as fire altars, i.e., sacrificial pits in which offerings were made into the fire, and the area seems to have been associated with community rituals. The buildings in the northern part of the citadel mound seem to have been houses where people associated with the rituals performed in the southern sector may have lived. There is a burial ground about 200 m west– south-west of the citadel. Apart from regular extended burials, there were also some circular pits with grave goods (pottery, bronze mirrors, etc.), but no human remains.
• The lower town was a rough parallelogram in plan, enclosed by a mud-brick wall. Several streets were traced here. Oblong fire altars were found in houses, with a central stele (rectangular piece) around which terracotta cakes, ash, and charcoal were found. While corbelled drains made of bricks have been found on the citadel mound, street drains of the Mohenjodaro type were absent in the lower town at Kalibangan. 
• The sewage from houses was discharged into troughs or large jars embedded in the ground outside. The large number of bangles of terracotta, shell, alabaster, steatite, and faience at the site indicate that bangle making was an important craft. Other interesting artefacts include an ivory comb, a copper buffalo or bull, what appears to be a stone phallic emblem with a base, and a terracotta fragment incised with a horned figure.
• Banawali in Hissar district (Haryana) is a fortified site measuring about 300 × 500 m, close to the dry bed of the Rangoi river. The site shows evidence of the early, mature, and late Harappan phases. Period II represents the mature Harappan culture. A wall divided the fortified area into two sections —a higher citadel area and a lower town. The citadel was semi-elliptical in plan and had its own mud-brick fortifications, surrounded by a moat. A few streets and structures were identified inside. A ramp led from the citadel into the lower town. 
• The mud-brick houses had raised platforms (chabutaras) outside. Baked bricks were used only for wells, bathing pavements, and drains. Excavations revealed a multi-roomed house, where archaeologists identified a kitchen and a toilet with a jar that seemed to have functioned as a washbasin. Since many seals and weights were found in this house, it may have belonged to a wealthy merchant. There was another big house with a large number of beads of gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian, tiny weights, and a ‘touchstone’ showing steaks of gold. 
• This must have been a jeweller’s house. Interestingly, seals were only found in the lower town, not in the citadel complex. Lots of stone weights in small denominations were found at the site, as was a terracotta model of a plough. Several houses at Banawali gave evidence of fire altars. In one place, these altars were associated with an apsidal structure which may have had some sort of ritualistic function.

Banawali: Eastern Gate

• At Rakhigarhi, located in the Hissar district of Haryana, five mounds have been identified. The citadel mound, enclosed by a mud-brick fortification wall, contained platforms, a brick well, fire altars, streets, and drains of varying dimensions. A lapidary workshop was uncovered, featuring approximately 3,000 unfinished beads, roughly cut stones including carnelian, chalcedony, agate, and jasper, bead polishers for smoothening, and a hearth for heating the stones. 
• Another section of the site provided evidence of bone and ivory craftsmanship, with finds including bones, antlers, ivory pieces, as well as finished and unfinished items like bone points, combs, needles, and engravers. A cemetery at the site revealed eight burials, mostly in brick-lined pits, with one burial including a wooden coffin.
• At Bhirrana in Haryana, two periods were identified: Period IIA, classified as early mature Harappan, and Period IIB, as mature Harappan. The mature Harappan settlement was fortified with a massive mud-brick wall. Excavations uncovered three multi-roomed house complexes. 
• A four-room complex was found in the central part of the mound. In the eastern part, two house complexes separated by a lane were uncovered, one with 10 rooms, a verandah, and a courtyard, and another with six rooms, a kitchen, three courtyards, a central courtyard, and an open verandah. The mud-brick-paved floors and mud-plastered brick walls were notable features. A circular tandoor and chullah were discovered in one courtyard, with another chullah in the kitchen. 
• Charred bones and a bovine skull were located near one chullah. A 4.80-meter-wide street ran north–south along the fortification wall, along with three identified lanes. Artefacts included a fragment of sturdy red ware with an incised female figure resembling the bronze ‘dancing girl’ from Mohenjo-daro.

Well and Drains, Lothal

• Lothal is located between the Sabarmati river and its tributary, the Bhogavo, in Saurashtra in Gujarat. The sea is now about 16–19 km away, but at one time, boats from the Gulf of Cambay could have sailed right up to the place. It was a modest-sized settlement (280 × 225 m), roughly rectangular in plan, surrounded by a wall which was initially made of mud and later of mud- and burnt bricks, with the entrance on the south. 
• There was a burial ground in the north-west, outside the enclosing walls. The citadel (called the ‘Acropolis’ by the excavator S. R. Rao) was roughly trapezoidal in plan and consisted of an area elevated on a mud-brick platform in the southern part of the site. Remains of residential buildings, streets, lanes, bathing pavements, and drains were traced here. 
• To the south of the residential area was a complex identified as a warehouse, where goods may have been packed and stored. Sixty-five terracotta sealings with impressions of reed, woven fibre, matting, and twisted cords on one side and impressions of Harappan seals on the other were found here.
• Some of the houses in the main residential area were quite large, with four to six rooms, bathrooms, a large courtyard, and verandah. A few had fire altars—small pits with terracotta cakes or round lumps of clay and ash. The streets were paved with mud-brick, with a layer of gravel on top. 
• Houses belonging to artisans such as coppersmiths, bead makers, etc. were identified on the basis of the occurrence of kilns, raw materials, and finished and unfinished artefacts. One of the streets was identified as a ‘bazaar street’, the rooms lining it interpreted as shops.

Lothal Dockyard

• The standout feature of Lothal is its dockyard, located on the eastern edge of the site. This structure is a roughly trapezoidal basin, enclosed by walls constructed from burnt bricks. The eastern and western walls measured 212 m and 215 m in length, while the northern and southern walls measured 37 m and 35 m, respectively. 
• The dockyard included systems to regulate water levels, using a sluice gate and a spill channel. A mud-brick platform along the western embankment is thought to have served as a wharf for loading and unloading goods. Alternative theories suggesting the structure was a water reservoir are unconvincing.
• Dholavira, situated on Kadir Island in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, may have been accessible by boats in protohistoric times, as water levels in the Rann were likely higher, allowing navigation from the coast to the site. The architecture of Dholavira prominently features sandstone, occasionally combined with mud-brick, a characteristic of Harappan sites in Gujarat. 
• Its layout is unique among Harappan settlements. The site is enclosed by an outer mud-brick fortification wall with a stone veneer on its outer face, strengthened with prominent bastions and featuring two major gateways in the northern and southern walls. Inside the outer fortification, the site is divided into at least three distinct sections: a small ‘castle’ area, a ‘bailey’ to its west, and a larger ‘middle town’ to the north, each with its own enclosing walls. 
• To the east lies the lower town. A notable feature is a large open space, referred to as the ‘stadium,’ situated between the castle–bailey area and the middle town, likely used for ceremonial events. Evidence of habitation beyond the fortification wall suggests a suburban settlement. The site overlooks the sea and likely played a significant role as a stop along major maritime trade routes.

Dholavira: Tank

Northern Gate

• The fortified acropolis at Dholavira spanned an area of 300 × 300 m, featuring gateways positioned at the center of its four walls. Excavations at the eastern gateway uncovered limestone pillar bases and fragments of polished stone pillars, pushing back the origins of monumental stone architecture in the subcontinent from the Mauryan period (4th century BCE) to the 3rd millennium BCE. 
• In one of the side chambers of the northern gateway, archaeologists found what appears to be a fallen signboard. This signboard consisted of an inscription made with white gypsum paste inlaid into a wooden board, which had fallen face down. While the wooden board itself decomposed over time, the gypsum symbols remained intact. 
• These symbols, each approximately 37 × 25–27 cm, may have indicated the city's name or the ruler's title. The acropolis also featured a large well, an advanced drainage system, and substantial buildings that likely served administrative or ritualistic purposes.

Plan of Dholavira

• The middle town of Dholavira was enclosed by a wall measuring 360 × 250 m and had four gateways. In the lower town, evidence of residential structures and areas for various crafts, such as bead-making, shell-working, and pottery-making, were discovered. Beyond the city walls, remains of additional settlements and burial sites were found. 
• The cemetery area revealed rectangular pit burials lined with stone blocks, although no skeletal remains were present, suggesting they might have served as memorials to the deceased.
• Dholavira is renowned for its exceptional water harvesting and management system. Situated in a region with less than 160 cm of annual rainfall and prone to droughts, the site was flanked by two seasonal streams, the Manhar and Mandsar. Dams were constructed to direct water from these streams into reservoirs. 
• At least 16 large, deep cisterns and reservoirs located in the citadel and lower town stored rainwater, ensuring a reliable water supply.

The Diversity of the Harappan Subsistence Base

Terracotta Plough Found At Banawali

Harappan Crafts and Techniques

Earlier writings often contrasted the simplicity of Harappan artifacts with the grandeur of those from Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, today the technological skill and beauty of certain Harappan artifacts are widely recognized.

• Variety and mass production: Harappan sites show a wide array of standardized, mass-produced craft items. These artifacts are more abundant and diverse, demonstrating superior technical skills compared to those from earlier periods.
• Specialization and variety: While some sites focused on the production of specific items, others like Harappa produced a broad range of goods. Craft production was often concentrated in specific areas of the settlement.

Ceramics included all items made from clay, such as bricks, terracotta, and faience. Harappan pottery is a testament to efficient mass production. Pottery kilns have been found at sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Nausharo, and Chanhudaro. These pots were fired in funnel-shaped, up-draft kilns, though open-firing kilns may have been used as well.

• Types of pottery: A wide variety of pottery types existed, including black-on-red, grey, buff, and black-and-red wares. Most were wheel-turned, with both fine and coarse fabrics being made in varying thicknesses.
• Typical pottery: The characteristic Harappan pottery is a fine, sturdy, wheel-made type with a bright red slip, adorned with black painted designs. Polychrome painting was uncommon. The red slip was created from red ochre (iron oxide, also called geru), while the black paint was made from a mixture of dark reddish-brown iron oxide and black manganese.
• Distinctive shapes and patterns: Pottery shapes included dish-on-stand, vase with s-profile, small vessels with knobbed decorations, large slender-footed bowls, cylindrical perforated jars, and goblets with pointed feet. Decorative patterns ranged from simple horizontal lines to geometric shapes and pictorial motifs. Some designs, such as fish scales, pipal leaves, and intersecting circles, can be traced back to the early Harappan period.
• Human figures: Representations of human figures were rare and often crude.

At the earliest levels of Mohenjodaro, a burnished grey ware with a dark purplish slip and vitreous glaze may be among the earliest examples of glazing techniques in the world. Although there was some degree of uniformity in pottery styles and techniques across the Harappan culture zone, regional differences were also present.

Harappan Pottery and Crafts

Pottery Functions:

• Large jars were likely used to store grain or water.
• Elaborately painted pots may have been for ceremonial purposes or used by the wealthy.
• Small vessels might have served as glasses for drinking water or other beverages.
• The purpose of perforated jars is unclear. They could have been wrapped in cloth for brewing fermented beverages or may have had a ceremonial role.
• Shallow bowls likely held cooked food, while flattish dishes were used as plates.
• Cooking pots, often with red or black-slipped rims and a rounded bottom, were reinforced with clay mixed with pottery or chaff.
• The strong, outward-projecting rims of cooking pots helped with handling. Some pot forms and features can still be seen in traditional kitchens today.
• In addition to ceramic pots, the Harappans also created and used metal vessels.

Miniature Pottery and Figurines:

• Harappan sites yielded a variety of terracotta items, including animal figurines (bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and dogs), toy carts with solid wheels, and human figurines (mostly female).
• Terracotta bangles and masks were also common, with masks discovered at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• Faience: A paste made from crushed quartz and colored minerals, used to make bangles, rings, pendants, miniature vessels, and figurines (including monkeys and squirrels).
• Stoneware Bangles: Harappans also created hard, high-fired red or grey-black stoneware bangles with an inner diameter of 5.5–6 cm, often inscribed with tiny letters.

Other Crafts:

• Stone Craft: Stone masonry and fine polished pillars were prominent, especially at Dholavira. Chert blades, made using the crested guided ridge technique, were mass-produced and may have been used as knives or sickles.
• Stone quarries were found in the Rohri hills of Sindh, and some tools were made by local people at home, as evidenced by the presence of stone flakes and cores in houses at Mohenjodaro.

Copper and Bronze:

• The Harappan civilization had a significant number of copper objects, including vessels, spears, knives, short swords, arrowheads, axes, fishhooks, needles, mirrors, rings, and bangles.
• Copper was often alloyed with arsenic, tin, or nickel for specific tools like knives, axes, and chisels, which needed hardened edges.
• Over time, the use of bronze tools increased at sites like Mohenjodaro (from 6% to 23% in higher levels).
• Copper Workshops: Sixteen copper furnaces were found at Harappa, and workshops were located at Lothal. Metal objects were valued, often buried in hoards for safekeeping.
• At Harappa, a hoard containing a large cooking pot with a bronze cover and several copper tools and weapons was discovered.

Gold, Silver, and Lead Crafts:

• The Harappans created beautiful gold and silver jewelry, including necklaces, bracelets, brooches, pendants, and earrings.
• A hoard of gold, silver, and semi-precious stone jewelry was found at Allahdino.
• Silver was used for embossing conch shells and making vessels, while lead was used for plumb bobs and in copper casting.
• Some metal objects found at Lothal contained iron, suggesting some knowledge of iron smelting.

Seal Making:

• Seals were typically square or rectangular, measuring around 2.54 cm on average, though some were larger. They often had a perforated boss at the back for suspension.
• Most seals were made of steatite, but there were also silver, faience, and calcite seals. Some seals featured a unicorn motif, especially in silver.
• Seals were created by sawing and shaping stone, then carving using chisels and drills. The finished seals were coated with alkali and heated to create a lustrous surface.
• Seal Designs: Motifs included animals (elephant, tiger, antelope, crocodile, hare, humped bull, buffalo, rhinoceros, unicorn), composite animals, human figures, and plants. Many seals had short inscriptions, some with motifs and others with writing but no motifs.

Stone Sealing and Bead Making

• Bead making was a well-established craft in earlier cultures, but in the Harappan civilization, new materials, styles, and techniques emerged.
• A new type of cylindrical stone drill was created for perforating beads made from semi-precious stones, and such drills have been found at sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro, and Dholavira.
• Materials used for beads included steatite, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli, shell, terracotta, gold, silver, and copper.
• The long barrel cylinder beads made from carnelian were highly valued, even finding their way into royal burials in Mesopotamia.
• Tiny micro-beads were crafted from steatite paste and hardened by heating. Beads were also made from faience.

Sculpture in Stone and Metal

• Apart from utilitarian items, a few stone and metal sculptures were discovered at Harappan sites, showcasing fine artistic skills.
• Notable finds include:
  • A stone bust (17.78 cm high) of a male figure from Mohenjodaro, called the ‘priest-king’.
  • Stone torsos of a male figure (about 10 cm high) found at Harappa.
  • A seated stone ibex or ram (49 × 27 × 21 cm) at Mohenjodaro and a stone lizard at Dholavira.
  • A large broken seated male figure from Dholavira.
• Two bronze female figurines were found at Mohenjodaro, including the famous ‘dancing girl’. This figurine was created using the lost-wax method, a technique still in use today in certain parts of India.
• The ‘dancing girl’ is 10.8 cm high, with a defiant stance, adorned with a necklace and multiple bangles, and may not represent a professional dancer, despite the name given to her by John Marshall.

Bead Making and Shell Work

• Bead-making factories with tools, furnaces, and unfinished beads were discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Evidence from Bagasra in Gujarat indicates the production of semi-precious stone beads, including agate, carnelian, amazonite, lapis lazuli, and steatite.
• Shell working was another key craft in the Harappan culture, with evidence of bangles made from conch shell and workshops specializing in this craft in Chanhudaro and Balakot.
• Bone working was another specialized craft, producing beads, awls, and pins. There are also examples of ivory carving, including combs, carved cylinders, small sticks, and pins.

Jewellery and Textiles

• Harappan jewellery included necklaces made from carnelian beads, gold, bangles made from terracotta, copper, stoneware, and lapis lazuli beads.
• Gold spiral pins and gold and terracotta beads were also crafted.
• The Harappans likely made cotton and woolen textiles, with evidence from terracotta figurines showing clothing styles (e.g., shawls and skirts).
• Mesopotamian texts refer to cotton imports from Meluhha (the Indus valley region), and traces of cotton cloth have been found at Mohenjodaro.
• Evidence of woven textile impressions on faience vessels suggests the use of spinning wheels, and spindle whorls used for spinning thread have been found at Harappan sites.

Craft Standardization and Measures

• The Harappan crafts exhibit impressive standardization, likely due to state control over certain crafts.
• Crafts requiring non-local raw materials and advanced technologies (e.g., seals, stoneware bangles, and stone weights) were more standardized.
• Weights found at Harappan sites are highly accurate, with a binary system for smaller weights and a decimal system for larger weights.
• Shell and ivory scales were used for measurements, with evidence from sites like Mohenjodaro and Lothal.
• This summary illustrates the complexity and advancement of Harappan craftsmanship, which spanned bead making, sculpture, shell work, textile production, and standardized measurements.

Explanation of the High Level of Standardization in Crafts

• The standardization in crafts such as pottery-making and brick-making could suggest some form of centralized control, potentially by merchants or rulers. However, the nature and extent of this control remain uncertain.
• Indirect control may have existed, with rulers or merchants possibly overseeing the flow of raw materials and finished goods, rather than directly managing the crafts.
• Another possibility is that the standardization resulted from hereditary craft specialists spreading across large areas, or from a well-developed internal trade network.
• Craftsmen and traders might have been organized into corporate groups, similar to guilds, although there is no direct evidence to support this.

New Directions in Research: Making Long Carnelian Beads

Networks of Trade

The discovery of the Harappan civilization sparked significant interest in its trade links with Mesopotamia. Before the development of radiocarbon dating, these trade connections were important for dating the Harappan culture and for making cross-cultural comparisons. Over time, however, many scholars have concluded that Harappan–Mesopotamian trade may not have been as extensive as initially believed. 

• Instead, areas like the Persian Gulf have been identified as more significant regions for long-distance trade with the Harappans. Nevertheless, internal trade networks within the Harappan culture and its connections to other regions in the subcontinent were essential in shaping the structure of the civilization and maintaining its notable cultural unity. 
• The significance of trade is evident from the wide range of raw materials and finished goods that circulated throughout the vast Harappan region. This trade was based on barter, as coinage had not yet been introduced.
• A key aspect of Harappan trade is identifying the sources of raw materials used by the Harappans. The best approach is through scientific analysis of artefacts, comparing them with raw materials from potential sources, though such studies are limited. Another method is mapping the locations of known raw material sources, particularly those near the Harappan region, although direct evidence of exploitation from protohistoric times is rarely available. Often, the earliest evidence comes from references in 18th- and 19th-century texts. Despite these limitations, such efforts help pinpoint probable raw material sources for the Harappans.
• The discovery of factory sites in the Sukkur and Rohri limestone hills indicates that chert blades were mass-produced and distributed to various Harappan settlements in Sindh. The Khetri copper deposits in Rajasthan were likely a key source of copper, while Rajasthan is also believed to have supplied lead and zinc. 
• Tin may have come from the Tosam area in Haryana, Afghanistan, or Central Asia. Gold likely came from Karnataka's Kolar fields, possibly traded through Neolithic people who also exported cattle. Fine disc beads, potentially made of steatite paste, found at Piklihal, may have been obtained from the Harappans. Lapis lazuli, used for beadmaking, likely came from Afghanistan, although it also appears in the Chagai Hills of Baluchistan.
• Traders were also involved in the movement of grains and other food products, transporting them between villages and cities. Two-wheeled carts were a crucial mode of transportation for both people and goods, with bronze and terracotta models of carts discovered at various sites. 
• Though no carts have survived, tracks resembling modern cart sizes have been found at several sites. Traders also used caravans of pack animals, including oxen, sheep, goats, and donkeys, to transport goods over long distances. Towards the end of the mature Harappan phase, camels seem to have been used, although the horse played a minimal role. 
• Boats were essential for trade, depicted on seals and moulded tablets, and clay models of boats have been found at Harappa and Lothal. River boats had cabins, ladders, and a raised platform at the stern for navigation, while seafaring boats had a sharp keel, pointed prow, flat stern, mast, and sails.
• Several routes of trade and communication connected the various parts of the Harappan culture zone—Baluchistan, Sindh, Rajasthan, Cholistan, Punjab, Gujarat, and the upper doab. These routes can be reconstructed by studying the geographical landscape, settlement patterns, and the distribution of raw materials and finished products. 
• Lahiri (1992: 112–43) points out that major trade routes connected the following areas: Sindh and south Baluchistan; coastal Sindh, upper Sindh, and the central Indus plains; the Indus plains and Rajasthan; the regions lying to the north of the Indus and Harappa; Sindh and east Punjab; east Punjab and Rajasthan; and Sindh and Gujarat. Some of the routes were already well defined in the early Harappan phase—e.g., the Baluchistan–Sindh route via the Kirthar mountains, and the route from east Punjab and Rajasthan via the Cholistan tract. 
• The route connecting north Afghanistan, the Gomal plain, and Multan with a feeder route going to the Taxila valley also continued to be important. Certain routes that were being used in the earlier period became more important in the mature Harappan phase—e.g., the routes within Sindh, between Sindh and the central Indus plains, and between Sindh and Baluchistan via Kutch and Kathiawar. It is likely that the Indus saw a certain amount of riverine traffic. 
• There was also a coastal route linking the Gujarat sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to sites such as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast. The location of some of the important sites can in fact be explained in relation to the trade routes of the time. For instance, Mohenjodaro lay at the intersection of the water-route of the Indus and the east– west land route that linked the Quetta valley and the Bolan river to Kot Diji and the western Nara.

Harappan Routes of Internal Trade (After Lahiri, 1992)

• The main sources of information on long-distance trade include a number of Harappan or Harappan-related (i.e., similar to Harappan types) artefacts found at sites outside the subcontinent, and foreign objects found at Harappan sites. These are supplemented by textual sources in the case of Indus–Mesopotamian trade (see Chakrabarti, 1990).
• A number of Harappan and Harappan-related objects have been found in south Turkmenistan at sites such as Altyn Depe, Namazga, and Khapuz. These include ivory dice, two types of metal objects (a spearhead and ladle), an ithyphallic terracotta, perforated ware, a segmented bead, and a silver seal. The most definite evidence comes from Altyn Depe, in the form of a rectangular Harappan seal bearing the Harappan script. The sites in Iran which have yielded Harappan and Harappan-related artefacts are Hissar, Shah Tepe, Kalleh Nisar, Susa, Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad, and Marlik. The main evidence consists of seals and carnelian beads (both the etched and long barrel cylinder types). The most important evidence of trade with Afghanistan comes from an isolated Harappan trading outpost at Shortughai.
• Many years ago, a round seal with a short-horned bull motif and Harappan writing was found at Failaka in the Persian Gulf. In recent years, there has been a substantial increase in the evidence of Harappan trade contacts with the Persian Gulf area. Harappan and Harappan-related artefacts (including a piece of ivory, a linga-shaped object, a circular mirror, and seals with Harappan motifs and/or writing) have been found at Rasal-Qala on the island of Bahrain. Excavations near Hamad in Bahrain yielded a typical Harappan seal and carnelian beads in burials. 
• A seal with the bull motif and Harappan script was found at the site of Hajjar. From Failaka, apart from the ‘Persian Gulf seal’ mentioned above, there was a flat, round seal with the Harappan script. Jar fragments with Harappan writing have been found at many sites in the Persian Gulf. These were probably containers used to transport perishable goods from the Harappan culture zone to this region.
• The Harappans were also trading with the Oman peninsula. An etched carnelian bead of the Harappan type was found at Umm-an-Nar. There are similarities between certain other types of objects found at this site (a square steatite seal, fragments of pottery, carnelian beads, a cubical stone weight, etc.) and Harappan artefacts. Maysar, an excavated copper-smelting site, has yielded evidence (e.g., pottery decorations and motifs on a seal) that suggests Harappan influence. 
• The major imports from Oman may have included chlorite vessels, shell, and perhaps mother-of-pearl. Copper has been mentioned as another Omani export to the Harappans, but this is unlikely, as the metal was available closer, in Rajasthan. As for Harappan exports to Oman, the items that survive in the archaeological record include beads, chert weights, and ivory objects.
• There is literary as well as archaeological evidence for Harappan trade with Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian records of the time of king Sargon (2334–2279 BCE) refer to ships from the lands of Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha tied along the quay of the capital city, Akkad. Dilmun can be identified with Bahrain, and Magan with the Makran coast and Oman. Meluhha may have been a generic term for areas lying to the east of Mesopotamia, including the Indus valley, or it may refer specifically to the Indus valley. 
• The archaeological evidence for Harappan–Mesopotamian trade consists mainly of a few Harappan or Harappan-related seals and carnelian beads at Mesopotamian sites such as Kish, Lagash, Nippur, and Ur. Carnelian beads (both the etched type and the long barrel-cylinder type) were also found in the royal graves at Ur. Certain motifs such as the bull on Mesopotamian seals have been cited as reflecting Harappan influence. 
• Cylinder seals (which are common in West Asia) with Harappan-type motifs suggest interaction between merchants of these two areas. The absence of Mesopotamian seals and sealings in the Harappan context suggests that Mesopotamian traders were not directly involved in the Harappan–Mesopotamian trade interactions.

Long-Distance Trade Routes

• The Harappan civilization engaged in extensive long-distance trade, exporting goods like carnelian beads, textiles, and conch shell objects to West Asia. Other potential exports included ivory, which may have been traded with regions such as Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and the Persian Gulf. Mesopotamian records mention items imported from Meluhha (believed to be the Harappan civilization), such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, gold, silver, copper, ebony, ivory, tortoiseshell, and even animals like a chicken-like bird, dog, cat, and monkey. Mesopotamia's exports included fish, grain, wool, woollen garments, and silver, though there is no conclusive archaeological evidence to confirm the presence of wool or silver in the Harappan region.
• There are differing views on the significance of Harappan-Mesopotamian trade. Ratnagar (1981) emphasizes its importance, suggesting that the decline of trade in lapis lazuli contributed to the downfall of the Harappan civilization. Despite the long list of items mentioned in Mesopotamian texts, few Harappan artifacts have been found in Mesopotamia, and even fewer Mesopotamian items are found at Harappan sites. Some scholars point to a few motifs on Harappan seals that resemble Mesopotamian designs—such as the whorl design, a man struggling with two animals, and the gatepost motif—but the evidence remains inconclusive. Scholars like Chakrabarti (1990) and Shaffer (1982b) argue that Harappan trade with Mesopotamia was neither direct nor particularly extensive or significant in supporting the Harappan civilization.
• Among the Harappan imports, lapis lazuli likely came from Afghanistan or the Chagai hills in Baluchistan. Jade may have been sourced from Turkmenistan, while tin could have come from Ferghana and eastern Kazakhstan in Central Asia. Carved chlorite and green schist vessels, popular in West Asia and the Persian Gulf, were also likely imported, possibly from southern Iran or Baluchistan. Very few West Asian artifacts have been discovered in Harappan contexts, although a seal of the Persian Gulf type was found at Lothal, and a lapis lazuli bead from Mohenjodaro and a pendant from Harappa may also have been imports. A cylinder seal with Indian motifs was found at Kalibangan.
• The dating of Harappan objects in Mesopotamia suggests their presence from the Early Dynastic IIIA period (around 2600/2500 BCE) to the Isin–Larsa period (around 2000/1900 BCE), corresponding to the mature Harappan phase. This timeline also applies to findings from other parts of West Asia. Interestingly, a Harappan seal found at Nippur in a 14th-century BCE context implies continued Harappan-Mesopotamian contact, though diminished, into the later phases of the Harappan civilization. Some evidence suggests continued trade with the Persian Gulf region, with two Harappan seals discovered at Failaka and a late Harappan seal at Bet Dwarka displaying Harappan writing and motifs similar to Persian Gulf seals.
• The importance of overland routes connecting the Harappan civilization to West Asia is clear from the locations of Harappan sites near passes that led into Afghanistan. Key sites such as Pathani Damb near the Mula pass, Nausharo near the Bolan pass, Dabarkot in the Gomal valley, and Gumla and Hathala in the Derajat region were strategically positioned along these routes. Of these, the Gomal route seems to have been the most significant.
• Two major overland routes linked the Harappan civilization to West Asia. The northern route passed through northern Afghanistan, north Iran, Turkmenistan, and Mesopotamia, connecting sites like Shortughai, Tepe Hissar, Shah Tepe, and Kish. A southern route passed through Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad, Kalleh Nisar, Susa, and Ur. The maritime route to Mesopotamia may have also been used, with key coastal sites like Sutkagen-dor, Balakot, and Dabarkot playing a role, though they may have been located nearer the coast at the time. Maritime trade hubs like Lothal, Kuntasi, Dholavira, and other sites along the Kutch coast were likely vital in facilitating trade across the seas.

The Nature and Uses of Writing

Among the biggest mysteries about the Harappan civilization are the language (or languages) the Harappans spoke and their writing system. It is likely that people living in various parts of the Harappan culture zone spoke different languages and dialects. The writing on the seals was probably in the language of the ruling elite. 

• Some scholars have suggested that this language belonged to the Dravidian family of languages, while others have argued in favour of the Indo-Aryan family. However, there is so far no consensus on the affiliation of the Harappan language or on the decipherment of the script.
• A total of about 3,700 inscribed objects have been found at Harappan sites (for details, see Mahadevan, 1977, Parpola, 1994). Most of the writing appears on seals and sealings (seal impressions), some on copper tablets, copper/bronze implements, pottery, and other miscellaneous objects. 
• About 50 per cent of the inscribed objects have been found at Mohenjodaro, and the two sites of Mohenjodaro and Harappa together account for about 87 per cent of all inscribed material. Most of the inscriptions are very short, with an average of five signs. The longest one has 26 signs. 
• The script seems to have emerged in a fully evolved state and does not show any significant changes over time. This conclusion may, however, be the result of the inadequacies of earlier excavations, which did not record the stratigraphic context of all objects, making it difficult to sort out earlier and later samples of writing.

The Dholavira 'Signboard'

• There are 400–450 basic signs and the script is logo-syllabic—i.e., each symbol stood for a word or syllable. It was generally written and meant to be read from right to left (this is reversed on the seals). This is evident from that fact that in inscriptions, the letters are cramped on the left side, where space had clearly run out, and from overlapping letters scratched onto pottery. There are a few instances, however, of writing from left to right. Longer inscriptions that consisted of more than one line were sometimes written in the boustrophedon style—with consecutive lines starting in opposite directions.
• What was the connection between the motifs on the seals and the writing? What was the extent of literacy among the Harappans? What was writing used for? In order to understand the uses of writing in the Harappan civilization, it is necessary to try to interpret the functions of the inscribed objects. Writing appears very frequently on the seals. Some of these were impressed onto small moist clay tablets known as sealings, probably by merchants to authenticate their bales of merchandise. The evidence of textile impressions on some sealings supports this interpretation. 
• However, more seals than sealings have been found, and the seals are generally worn at the edges and not inside. This suggests that some of the so-called seals may have had other functions. They may have been tokens used in the buying and selling of goods. They may also have been worn as amulets or used as identification markers (like modern identity cards) by well-to-do people like landowners, merchants, priests, artisans, and rulers. Those no longer in use must have been intentionally broken so that they could not be misused by anybody. Tablets with narrative scenes may have had a religious or ritualistic function. The so-called ‘seals’ were thus used for multiple purposes.
• Writing also appears on miniature tablets made of steatite, terracotta, and faience. Since these objects were not used to make impressions, unlike the seals, the writing on them was not reversed. Many of the objects were discovered at Harappa and other large cities. Rectangular copper tablets with writing and animal motifs were found at Mohenjodaro, while a few tablets with raised writing were found at Harappa. The limited number of places where they occur suggests a restricted use. Interestingly, there are many duplicates of both the miniature and copper tablets.
• The evidence of writing on pottery suggests a wider use in craft production and economic transactions. Harappan potters sometimes inscribed letters onto pots before firing. At other times, inscriptions were made on pots after they were fired (this is termed ‘graffiti’). Even if the potters who made the marks on their pots were themselves illiterate, they must have been able to recognize the symbols. Pointed goblets sometimes have seal impressions, which may have indicated the name or status of the person for whom the pot was made.
• Items like copper and bronze tools, stoneware bangles, bone pins, and gold jewellery were sometimes inscribed. A copper vessel found at Mohenjodaro contained a large number of gold objects. These included four ornaments with tiny inscriptions, all apparently written by the same hand, probably giving the name of the owner. Some of the writing inscribed or painted on personal possessions such as bangles, tools, beads, and bone rods may have had some sort of magico-religious or ritualistic significance.
• The Dholavira ‘signboard’ may or may not indicate a high level of urban literacy, but it does indicate a civic use of writing. It is likely that a very small proportion of Harappan written material survives, and that people wrote on perishable material as well. The evidence of a common script all over the vast Harappan culture zone shows a high level of cultural integration. The virtual disappearance of the script by c. 1700 BCE suggests both a close connection of writing with city life and the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing.