Vivek Singh Summary Agriculture - 2 | Indian Economy for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Agriculture is the backbone of any country, essential for the survival of all living beings. A crucial process for growing crops is irrigation, which involves the artificial application of water to land or soil. This contrasts with rain-fed farming, where water is naturally supplied through rainfall. Irrigation serves as a substitute or supplement for rainwater, using other water sources. It is particularly important in dry regions and during times of inadequate rainfall. Considered a fundamental infrastructure, irrigation is a vital input for agricultural production.

Sources of Irrigation

1. Canals (24%) 

• Historically, canals were the most important source of irrigation in the 1950s and 60s. However, by the 1970s, they were surpassed by wells and tube wells and now rank as the second most important source of irrigation in India.
• Effectiveness: Canals are most effective in areas with low-level relief, deep fertile soils, a perennial source of water, and an extensive command area. This is why canal irrigation is primarily found in the northern plains of India, especially in states like Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjab.
• Construction: Canals are constructed by building a barrage across a river that flows year-round, diverting water to agricultural fields. They can also be created by pumping water from rivers using large electric pumps.
• Example: The Indira Gandhi Canal, the longest canal in India and the largest irrigation project globally, is 649 km long. It starts from the Harike Barrage in Punjab, where the Sutlej and Beas rivers meet, and flows through Haryana and Rajasthan, ending in the Thar Desert. This canal is a significant project from the Green Revolution in India.

2. Wells (17%)

• Wells are the most widely distributed source of irrigation in India. A well is essentially a hole dug in the ground to access subsoil water. While ordinary wells are about 3-5 meters deep, deeper wells of up to 15 meters are also common.
• Popularity: Well irrigation is more common in areas with abundant groundwater and limited canal access, such as eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Methods: Water from wells always requires some form of lifting mechanism for irrigation. Traditional methods like the mot (a type of hand-operated lift) are still used in many areas, but power-driven pumps have become increasingly popular in most regions.

3. Tube Wells (46%)

• Tube Wells are commonly found in regions where the water table is quite deep, typically over 15 metres. 
• In these areas, sub-soil water is accessed through deep well pumping. Tube wells are prevalent in the Indo-Gangetic valley and certain coastal deltaic regions.

4. Tanks (12% Irrigation)

• A tank serves as an irrigation storage system created by constructing a small bund of earth or stones across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is utilized for irrigation and various other purposes. Tanks can be built partly as dugouts and partly by enclosing bunds. 
• They come in various sizes, but most are small and constructed by individual farmers or groups of farmers. Tank irrigation is particularly suitable in the peninsular plateau region, such as Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana) and Tamil Nadu. In these states, tanks are formed through natural depressions by building earthen embankments. 
• The hard and non-porous rocks in these areas help retain water for extended periods. Andhra Pradesh, including Telangana, leads in tank irrigation, accounting for about 29 percent of India’s tank-irrigated area. Odisha and Karnataka also have some tank irrigation.

Techniques of Irrigation

1. Surface/Flood Irrigation

• Basin: Basin irrigation is the most prevalent form of surface irrigation, especially in areas with small field layouts. A basin is created when a field is level in all directions, surrounded by a dyke or embankment to prevent runoff, and allows undirected water flow onto the field. Basins are typically square but can be irregular or rectangular. They may have furrows, corrugations, or raised beds for specific crops, as long as the water inflow is uncontrolled. Basin irrigation is suitable for crops like paddy and wheat.
• Furrow: Furrow irrigation involves creating small parallel channels along the length of the field, following the direction of the predominant slope. Water is applied to the top of each furrow and flows down the field by gravity. Water can be supplied using gated pipes, siphons, or head ditches. The speed of water movement depends on factors like slope, surface roughness, furrow shape, inflow rate, and soil infiltration rate. The spacing between furrows varies by crop species, typically ranging from 0.75 to 2 metres, with the crop planted on the ridge between furrows. This method is suitable for crops such as cotton, sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables.
• Bay/ Border irrigation: Bay or border irrigation is a method that combines elements of level basin and furrow irrigation. In this technique, the field is divided into several bays or strips, which are separated by raised earth check banks, known as borders.
• Bay Dimensions: Bays are typically longer and narrower than those used in basin irrigation. They are oriented to follow the slope of the field. The usual dimensions for bays range from 10 to 70 meters in width and 100 to 700 meters in length.
• Water Application: Water is applied to the top end of each bay. The design of the bay facilitates a free-flowing condition at the downstream end, allowing for efficient water distribution.
• Common Uses: This method is often used for irrigating pastures, particularly in large farms dedicated to dairy production.

2. Drip/ Trickle/ Micro/ Localized Irrigation

• Definition: Drip irrigation involves delivering water directly to the soil at very low rates, typically between 2 to 20 litres per hour. This is achieved through a system of small-diameter plastic pipes equipped with outlets called emitters or drippers.
• Soil Wetting: Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which wet the entire soil profile, drip irrigation targets specific areas close to the plants. This means that only a portion of the soil where the roots grow is wetted.
• Application Frequency: Water applications in drip irrigation are more frequent, usually every 1 to 3 days. This helps maintain a consistently high moisture level in the soil, creating an ideal environment for plant growth.
• Suitable Crops: Drip irrigation is most effective for row crops such as vegetables and soft fruits like grapes. It is also suitable for tree and vine crops where one or more emitters can be placed for each plant. Due to the high initial costs of installing a drip system, this method is generally used for high-value crops.
• Adaptability: Drip irrigation can be adapted to any farmable slope. Typically, crops are planted along contour lines, and the water supply pipes, known as laterals, are also laid along the contour. This practice helps minimize variations in emitter discharge caused by changes in land elevation.
• Soil Compatibility:Drip irrigation is suitable for most soil types. However:
  • Clay Soils: Water must be applied slowly to prevent surface ponding and runoff.
  • Sandy Soils: Higher emitter discharge rates may be necessary to ensure adequate lateral wetting of the soil.
• Bamboo Irrigation: In regions like Meghalaya and some northeastern states of India, a traditional system of drip irrigation using bamboo pipes is prevalent. This method involves tapping into stream and spring water, which is then transported over long distances and delivered to plants in controlled drops. Farmers in the Khasi and Jaintia hills have been using this 200-year-old system effectively.
• Bamboo Drip Irrigation is a traditional method used to irrigate crops like betel leaves and black pepper, often grown in arecanut orchards or mixed orchards.
• This system utilizes bamboo pipes to transport water from perennial springs on hilltops to lower areas using gravity.
• Water is diverted and conveyed through bamboo channel sections to the plot site, where it is distributed into branches without leakage.
• The flow of water into lateral pipes is controlled by adjusting the positions of the intake pipes.
• At the final stage of water application, reduced channel sections and diversion units are used to drop water near the roots of the plants.

3. Sprinkler Irrigation

• Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to crops that mimics natural rainfall. It involves distributing water through a system of pipes, usually with the help of a pump, and spraying it into the air through sprinklers. The water then breaks into small droplets and falls to the ground, providing an even and uniform application.
• Uniform Application: The pump supply system, sprinklers, and operating conditions are designed to ensure that water is applied uniformly across the field.
• Suitable for Uneven Land: Sprinkler irrigation is particularly useful for uneven land where surface irrigation may not be effective.
• Water Efficiency: This method reduces water wastage and distributes water more evenly compared to surface irrigation.
• Adaptability: Sprinklers can be buried in the ground or used above ground, and they are adaptable to most soil types, although they work best in sandy soils with high infiltration rates.
• Crops: Sprinkler irrigation is suitable for a wide range of crops, including row, field, and tree crops. Water can be sprayed over or under the crop canopy, making it a versatile irrigation method.

Overview of Farming Systems and Cropping Patterns in India

Agriculture has been a fundamental economic activity in India for a long time. Over the years, the methods of cultivation have evolved significantly, influenced by the physical environment, technological advancements, and socio-cultural practices. Today, farming in India ranges from subsistence to commercial types, and various farming systems are practiced in different parts of the country.

• Primitive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is still observed in some remote areas of India. It involves small-scale cultivation using primitive tools such as hoes, daos, and digging sticks, along with family or community labor. Primitive subsistence farming relies on natural factors like monsoon, soil fertility, and environmental conditions. Farmers clear a small patch of land to grow cereals and food crops to sustain their families. Once the soil fertility decreases, they shift to a new patch, allowing the old land to recover naturally. This method is characterized by low productivity as modern inputs like fertilizers are not used.
• Intensive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is found in areas with high population pressure on land. It is labor-intensive and involves the use of high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation to achieve higher yields. Due to the division of land among successive generations, landholdings have become uneconomical. However, farmers continue to maximize output from limited land due to the lack of alternative livelihoods, resulting in significant pressure on agricultural land.
• Commercial Farming This type of farming is characterized by the use of modern inputs such as high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides to achieve higher productivity. The degree of commercialization varies by region. For example, rice is considered a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab but remains a subsistence crop in Odisha.
• Plantation Farming This is a subset of commercial farming where a single crop is grown over a large area. Plantation farming involves a mix of agriculture and industry, covering vast tracts of land using capital-intensive inputs and migrant labor. The produce is primarily used as raw material for respective industries. In India, important plantation crops include tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, and others. Since production is geared towards the market, a well-developed network of transport and communication linking plantation areas, processing industries, and markets is crucial for the development of plantations.
• Cropping Pattern refers to the distribution of crops in terms of time and space. It involves how different crops are arranged and scheduled for cultivation within a given area.
• Cropping System includes all the cropping patterns present on a farm and their interactions with various factors such as farm resources, household enterprises, and physical, biological, technological, and sociological environments.

India experiences three main cropping seasons :

• Rabi : Winter season, when crops like wheat and barley are sown.
• Kharif : Monsoon season, when crops like rice and maize are grown.
• Zaid : The summer period between Rabi and Kharif, suitable for crops like watermelon and cucumber.

The cropping pattern in India varies by region due to factors such as terrain, topography, slope, temperature, rainfall, soil types, and irrigation water availability. Here are the different types of cropping patterns followed in India:

1. Monocropping or Monoculture

• In this system, only one crop is grown on the same piece of land year after year.
• Example: Growing wheat or corn in areas without irrigation.

2. Multiple Cropping

• Involves growing more than one crop on the same land within a single year.

3. Inter Cropping

• This practice involves growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same area, often in alternate rows.
• Example: Planting pigeon pea with sorghum.

4. Mixed Cropping

• Involves cultivating two or more crops together on the same piece of land without a specific row pattern or ratio.
• Example: Growing wheat and mustard together in northern India.

5. Sequential Cropping

• Involves growing two or more crops in quick succession on the same land within a farming year.
• Example: Sowing potato immediately after harvesting maize, followed by chili.

6. Relay Cropping

• This method involves planting the seeds or seedlings of a succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding crop.
• Example: Planting potato before harvesting maize, or sowing radish before harvesting potato.

7. Crop Rotation

• Involves changing the type of crops grown in a field each season or year, or switching from crops to fallow land.
• Example: Planting maize one year and beans the next.

8. Ratooning

• A method of intensive cropping where the stubbles of the original crop are allowed to grow again after harvesting, leading to the cultivation of another crop.

Mixed Farming

• Mixed farming refers to a farming system that includes a combination of various activities such as crop production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, and beekeeping on a single farm. The aim is to meet as many needs of the farmer as possible while maintaining ecological balance.
• The primary goal is subsistence, but higher profitability without disrupting the ecological balance is also important in this farming system.

Food Systems

Food systems (FS) involve all the people and activities connected to producing, processing, distributing, consuming, and disposing of food from agriculture, forestry, or fisheries. These systems are part of a bigger economic, social, and natural context.

Components of Food Systems:

• Food systems include different parts, like how we manage waste, supply inputs, and farm.
• They also interact with other important systems, such as energy, trade, and health.

Impact of Changes:

• A change in one system can affect the food system. For example, promoting biofuels in the energy system can significantly impact food production and distribution.

Sustainable Food System (SFS)

• A sustainable food system ensures food security and nutrition for everyone now and in the future without compromising the economic, social, and environmental foundations needed for future food security.
• Economic Sustainability: It should create benefits for all stakeholders, including wages for workers, taxes for governments, profits for businesses, and better food supplies for consumers.
• Social Sustainability: A food system is sustainable when the economic benefits are distributed fairly, considering vulnerable groups and contributing to better nutrition and health.
• Environmental Sustainability: This involves making sure that food system activities have neutral or positive impacts on the environment, including biodiversity, water, soil, animal and plant health, and reducing food waste and toxicity.

Connection to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

• A sustainable food system is central to the UN’s SDGs, which aim for major changes in agriculture and food systems to eliminate hunger, achieve food security, and improve nutrition by 2030.

Animal Husbandry

Livestock is a crucial component of Indian agriculture and plays a vital role in the rural economy. The sector is growing rapidly and contributes significantly to the country's GDP. Farmers in India practice mixed farming, integrating crop and livestock production for greater resource efficiency.

Livestock Rearing in India

Livestock rearing is a pivotal part of the agricultural landscape in India, providing various benefits to farmers and contributing to the economy. Here’s an overview of the importance and roles of livestock in Indian agriculture:

1. Economic Contribution

Livestock accounts for about 5% of India’s total GDP and 26% of agricultural GDP (2010-11 data). The sector is growing faster than many other agricultural sectors, driving overall agricultural growth.

2. Mixed Farming System

• Farmers in India typically practice mixed farming, combining crop and livestock production. This system enhances resource efficiency, as the output from one enterprise serves as input for another.
• Livestock rearing is especially crucial for small and marginal farmers, providing a stable livelihood and helping mitigate risks, particularly in rain-fed regions.

3. Sources of Income

• Livestock provides supplementary income for many families, especially those with limited resources.
• Milk from cows and buffaloes generates regular income, while animals can be sold in emergencies to cover expenses like weddings, medical treatment, education, and house repairs.
• Animals also serve as assets, providing economic security and acting as a financial buffer.

4. Employment Opportunities

• Many less literate and unskilled individuals rely on agriculture for their livelihoods, but agricultural work is seasonal, offering employment for only about 180 days a year.
• Livestock provides an alternative source of income and employment during the lean agricultural season, helping sustain livelihoods.

5. Food Security

• Livestock products, such as milk, meat, and eggs, are essential sources of animal protein for livestock owners and their families.

6. Social Security and Status

• Owning animals provides social security and status to families, particularly landless ones. Families with livestock are often better off than those without.
• Gifting animals during weddings is a common practice in many parts of India, reflecting the cultural significance of livestock.
• Animals are also used in various socio-religious functions, such as housewarming ceremonies (cows) and religious worship (bulls and cows).

7. Draft and Draught Power

• Bullocks are essential for ploughing, carting, and transporting inputs and outputs in agriculture. They are the backbone of farming, especially for marginal and small farmers who depend on them for various agricultural tasks.
• In summary, livestock rearing is integral to the livelihoods of many Indian farmers, providing income, employment, food security, social status, and essential services in agricultural production. The sector is not only a vital part of the economy but also deeply embedded in the cultural and social fabric of rural India.

6. Dung

• In rural areas, dung serves multiple purposes, including fuel (dung cakes), fertilizer (farmyard manure), and plastering material (often referred to as "poor man's cement").
• The role of livestock is changing due to shifts in agriculture and food consumption. The traditional uses of livestock are diminishing. For example, the need for livestock for 'draught power' has decreased because of the mechanization of agricultural operations and shrinking farm sizes. Additionally, the use of dung manure is being increasingly replaced by chemical fertilizers. However, the importance of livestock as a source of quality and nutritious food has grown. 
• Factors such as sustained income and economic growth, a rapidly growing urban population, an expanding middle class, changing lifestyles, a rising proportion of women in the workforce, and improvements in transportation and storage, along with the emergence of supermarkets in cities and towns, are driving a significant increase in the consumption of animal food products.

Important Aspects of Animal Rearing

• In the rural sector, livestock is distributed more equitably than land. Therefore, for inclusive growth and poverty alleviation, livestock rearing should be a central focus.
• Livestock rearing at the household level is primarily led by women. Income from livestock and management decisions are mainly made by women. Support for livestock rearing has been shown to empower women and increase their decision-making roles at both the household and village levels.
• In rain-fed regions, livestock rearing is becoming a crucial risk mitigation strategy for the poorest households facing uncertain and erratic weather conditions that impact crop productivity and wage labor in agriculture.
• Despite the contribution of livestock products to food security and poverty reduction for low-income rural families, the policy and institutional framework has not adequately met the needs of the poorest households.

Major Challenges Faced by the Livestock Sector:

• Inadequate testing and treatment facilities for veterinary diseases, particularly in rural areas where over 95% of livestock is concentrated.

Failure to connect smallholder livestock keepers to better-paying markets

Lack of insurance and credit facilities

• Livestock producers, including traditional pastoralists and smallholders, have become victims of natural resource degradation impacting animal productivity
• As per the revised provisions of the livestock health and disease control programme, there is a major focus on establishment and strengthening of Veterinary services – Mobile Veterinary Units (MVU). MUVs will plug the challenges posed by the limitations of stationary hospitals by providing veterinary diagnostics and treatments facilities at a farmers’ doorstep for ailments, diseases, or any other emergency veterinary conditions.

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National Livestock Mission

The National Livestock Mission was initiated by the Government of India in 2014-15 to promote sustainable and continuous growth in the livestock sector. The mission aims to improve both the quantity and quality of livestock production systems and to build the capacity of all stakeholders involved.

Objectives:

• Ensure sustainable development of the livestock sector.
• Improve the availability of quality feed and fodder.
• Provide risk coverage.
• Enhance effective extension services.
• Facilitate better flow of credit.
• Organize livestock farmers and rearers.

Sub-Missions under the National Livestock Mission:

(i) Sub-Mission on Fodder and Feed Development:

• Address the scarcity of animal feed resources.
• Aim to eliminate the feed deficit.
• Enhance the competitiveness of the livestock sector.
• Explore export potential in the livestock sector.

(ii) Sub-Mission on Livestock Development:

• Focus on productivity enhancement and entrepreneurship development.
• Strengthen the infrastructure of state farms through modernization and biosecurity.
• Conserve threatened livestock breeds and develop minor livestock.
• Improve rural slaughterhouses and address issues related to fallen animals and livestock insurance.

(iii) Sub-Mission on Pig Development in the North-Eastern Region:

• Support the development of piggery in the North-Eastern states.
• Enhance state piggery farms and import germplasm to improve local pig breeds.
• Contribute to livelihood improvement and protein-rich food supply in the region.

(iv) Sub-Mission on Skill Development, Technology Transfer, and Extension:

• Strengthen extension services for livestock activities at the field level.
• Facilitate the adoption of new technologies by farmers.
• Promote linkages between stakeholders to disseminate new practices.
• Provide flexible components for sustainable livestock development in all states, including the North-Eastern region.
• The government has established a new Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying to focus specifically on these areas, separate from the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare. 
• Recently, the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, under this new ministry, released the 20th Livestock Census report, which shows a 4.6% increase in livestock population to 54 crore. Uttar Pradesh has the highest livestock population in the country. Livestock contributes about 5% to the overall GDP.

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

• The Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) is a scheme sponsored by the central government in India.
• It aims for the overall development of the horticulture sector, which includes various crops such as fruits, vegetables, spices, flowers, and more.

Funding:

• The funding for developmental programs under MIDH is shared between the Government of India (GOI) and State Governments.
• GOI contributes 60% of the total outlay for most states, while states contribute 40%.
• In North Eastern States and Himalayan States, GOI's contribution is 90%.
• For agencies like the National Horticulture Board (NHB) and the Coconut Development Board (CDB), GOI covers 100% of the costs.

Support and Strategy:

• MIDH offers technical advice and administrative support to State Governments and State Horticulture Missions (SHMs).
• The mission focuses on producing quality seeds and planting materials, enhancing productivity, reducing post-harvest losses, and improving marketing.
• It encourages active participation from all stakeholders, especially farmer groups and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).

National Bamboo Mission

The National Bamboo Mission aims to promote the holistic growth of the bamboo sector through an area-based and regionally differentiated strategy. The mission focuses on increasing the area under bamboo cultivation and improving marketing efforts for bamboo products. To enhance the availability of quality planting material, the mission supports the establishment of new nurseries and the strengthening of existing ones. Additionally, the mission aims to strengthen the marketing of bamboo products, particularly handicraft items, to address forward integration.

Objectives of the National Bamboo Mission

• Increase Bamboo Plantation: Expand bamboo cultivation in non-forest government and private lands to boost farm income, enhance climate resilience, and ensure a steady supply of quality raw materials for industries. Bamboo plantations will be encouraged in farmers’ fields, homesteads, community lands, arable wastelands, and along irrigation canals and water bodies.
• Improve Post-Harvest Management: Establish innovative primary processing units, primary treatment and seasoning plants, and market infrastructure to enhance post-harvest management of bamboo products.
• Promote Product Development: Foster research and development, entrepreneurship, and business models at micro, small, and medium levels to align product development with market demand and support larger industries.
• Rejuvenate Bamboo Industry: Revitalize the underdeveloped bamboo industry in India through targeted initiatives.
• Skill Development and Capacity Building: Promote skill development, capacity building, and awareness generation across the bamboo sector, from production to market demand.
• Reduce Dependency on Imports: Enhance domestic productivity and the suitability of raw materials for industry to reduce reliance on imported bamboo and bamboo products, thereby increasing the income of primary producers.
• Support for North Eastern States: Given that 67% of bamboo in India is grown in North Eastern States, the government is providing support and subsidies for the establishment of bamboo-based clusters in these regions.

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

GM crops are plants whose DNA has been altered through genetic engineering. This process involves modifying the genetic material of the plant to achieve specific traits or characteristics.

Here are some of the benefits of GM crops:

• Enhanced Nutritional Value: GM crops can be engineered to have higher nutritional content, making them more beneficial for consumers.
• Resistance to Pests and Diseases: Genetic modifications can make plants more resistant to bacteria, viruses, and other harmful organisms that can damage the plant.
• Longer Shelf Life: GM crops can be designed to have a longer shelf life, reducing food waste and increasing availability.
• Cost-Effectiveness and Higher Yields: GM foods can be produced at a lower cost, and they often result in higher yields, benefiting both farmers and consumers.
• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the primary regulatory body for GM crops in India. It operates under the Ministry of Environment and Forests and is responsible for overseeing the approval and regulation of GM crops under the Environment Protection Act of 1986.
• Currently, the Indian government permits the commercial production of only one GM crop: BT cotton, which has been allowed since 2002. Although BT Brinjal has successfully passed field trials, its commercial production has been halted since 2010 due to strong opposition from civil society groups.
• There is a significant debate surrounding GM foods, with some groups opposing their use. Critics argue that certain GM foods may trigger allergic reactions in humans and could potentially be toxic. For example, concerns have been raised about the impact of GM cotton on cotton pickers.
• In India, Monsanto Mahyco Biotech (India) Ltd., a joint venture between Mahyco Seeds Ltd and Monsanto, licensed its patented Bollgard II cotton seed technology to 50 seed companies in exchange for a royalty fee. This technology is used in more than 90% of the cotton grown in India.
• In March 2016, the Indian government reduced the price of genetically modified Bollgard II cotton seeds and significantly cut royalty fees to standardize pricing across the country. This decision was made to protect the interests of farmers under the Essential Commodities Act of 1955. However, the move faced criticism from industry lobbyists who argued that it undermined free market principles and could deter future investments in seed research and development in India.
• In legal disputes involving Monsanto and seed companies like Nuziveedu, the Indian government has argued that the Indian Patents Act of 1970 prohibits patenting seeds, plants, and their varieties. Monsanto, on the other hand, contends that it is patenting the genes in the seeds, not the seeds themselves. The government maintains that once a gene is inserted into a seed, it becomes a plant variety and is not patentable under Indian law. This legal debate centers on the interpretation of patent rights and the definition of plant varieties in the context of genetic engineering.

GM Mustard

• In October 2022, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) recommended the environmental release of GM mustard variety DMH-11, marking a significant step toward the commercialisation of India's first GM food crop.
• However, GEAC's approval is not the final step; it is crucial to see whether the Central Government will accept these recommendations.

Potential Benefits of GM Mustard

• DMH-11 is expected to yield 30% more than current mustard varieties, with average yields of around 1,000-1,200 kg per hectare compared to global averages of over 2,000-2,200 kg.

Concerns and Opposition

• Environmental activists and groups like the Swadeshi Jagran Manch have raised concerns about the potential health risks associated with GM crops.
• There are worries about the correlation between GM crop growth, the herbicides they promote, and health issues such as acute kidney injury, diabetes, Alzheimer's, and cancer observed in the past 20 years in the US.
• Critics argue that GM crops are herbicide-tolerant, leading to increased and hazardous exposure to single herbicides as weeds develop resistance.
• The introduction of GM mustard could impact all Indians who consume mustard, potentially exposing them to herbicide residues and displacing poor women who rely on weeding for income.
• It could also affect beekeepers due to honey contamination, lead to declining yields for farmers as bee populations decrease, and result in a loss of seed diversity and competitive advantage in non-GM mustard and honey.

Current Status

• The GEAC's recommendation is a positive step, but simultaneous field studies on the impact of GM mustard on honeybees and other pollinators are necessary.
• The final decision rests with the Central Government, and the outcome remains uncertain.
• Small and marginalized farmers, who make up 86% of the farming community, will struggle to afford the high costs associated with cultivating genetically modified (GM) mustard crops. This situation is likely to push them further into poverty.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPVFR) Act 2001

The PPVFR Act 2001 aims to protect plant varieties, farmers’ rights, and encourage the development of new plant varieties. It establishes a system for safeguarding the interests of plant breeders, farmers, and the genetic diversity of plant resources.

Breeders' Rights

• Breeders, which can include individuals, groups, or institutions that develop new plant varieties, are granted specific rights under this Act.
• The breeder or their representative has the exclusive right to produce, sell, market, distribute, export, and import the protected variety.

Farmers' Rights

• Farmers engaged in conserving and improving genetic resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants are entitled to recognition and rewards from the Gene Fund. This is applicable if the conserved material is used as a donor for genes in registrable varieties.
• Farmers have the right to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share, or sell their farm produce, including seeds of protected varieties, as they were entitled to do before the Act came into force. However, they cannot sell branded (packaged) seeds of protected varieties.

National Gene Fund

The Central Government will establish a National Gene Fund.

• Royalty Payments: Breeders will be required to pay royalties based on the benefits they gain. These royalties will be deposited into the National Gene Fund.
• Benefit Sharing: If an individual claims that their genetic material was used in the development of a seed variety by a breeder, they are entitled to "benefit sharing" from the National Gene Fund. The breeder must deposit the amount designated for "benefit sharing" into the fund.
• Definition of Benefit Sharing: "Benefit sharing" refers to the proportion of the benefit accruing to a breeder that a claimant is entitled to, as determined by the relevant authority.

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Organic Farming

Organic farming is an agricultural approach that focuses on methods like crop rotation, green manure, and biological pest control. The primary goal of organic farming is to cultivate land and raise crops in a way that maintains and improves soil health. This is achieved by using organic waste, biological materials, and beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to provide nutrients to crops, ensuring sustainable production in an eco-friendly and pollution-free environment.

• Organic farming works at the grassroots level, preserving the soil's reproductive and regenerative capacity, ensuring good plant nutrition, and managing soil effectively. It produces nutritious food that is rich in vitality and resistant to diseases.
• Among Indian states, Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under organic certification, followed by Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. Sikkim was declared the first fully organic state in India in January 2016 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Organic products from India include a wide range of food items such as sugarcane, oilseeds, cereals, cotton, pulses, medicinal plants, tea, fruits, spices, dry fruits, vegetables, coffee, and cotton fiber.
• Organic Products and Certification : The term 'organic' originally referred to a natural, balanced, and eco-friendly farming system. However, it has become more specific in recent years due to stricter certification rules. Now, 'organic' refers to foods produced without chemical pesticides, fertilizers, or genetically modified materials, and processed without chemical additives or synthetic substances. This definition also applies to meat, poultry, and dairy products made without antibiotics or artificial growth hormones, although it may vary by country.
• In India, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) regulates organic foods. In November 2017, FSSAI published regulations governing the manufacture, sale, distribution, and import of organic food in India. As a result, any food labeled as 'organic' in India must be certified under one of two systems: the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) or the Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS-India).

PGS – India

• Self-Certification
• Third Party Certification

NPOP

• Ministry of Agriculture
• Ministry of Commerce and Industry

Differences between NPOP and PGS-India

• NPOP (National Programme for Organic Production) is a third-party certification program established by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in 2001. It sets strict guidelines for organic food production, covering every detail from farm to packaging. For example, in honey production, every aspect from the bee box to the surrounding farms must meet organic standards.
• PGS-India (Participatory Guarantee System) is a community-based certification system that emphasizes local trust and verification. While both systems aim to ensure organic integrity, they operate independently. Products certified under one system cannot be processed or labeled under the other.
• Certification and Trade : NPOP-certified products can be traded both domestically and internationally, including imports. In contrast, PGS-India certified products are limited to domestic trade.
• Jaivik Bharat Logo : To distinguish organic products from non-organic ones, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has introduced the 'Jaivik Bharat' logo. This logo represents organic food certified under either NPOP or PGS-India. All organic products must bear this logo along with the certification program logo (PGS-India or NPOP).
• Import of Organic Food : The regulations also allow the import of organic food into India without re-certification if the organic standards of the exporting country are deemed equivalent to NPOP. This facilitates smoother trade and ensures the availability of organic products in the Indian market.

NPOP Certification Process

• Guidelines and Accreditation: The NPOP lays down detailed guidelines for organic production. Central bodies like the National Accreditation Board (NAB) and the Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) accredit certifying bodies that conduct inspections and grant organic status to farmers and enterprises.
• Certifying Bodies: Various private certifying bodies, such as the Indian Organic Certification Agency (INDOCERT) and Natural Organic Certification Pvt. Ltd., along with government agencies like FSSAI and state bodies like the Uttarakhand State Organic Certification Agency, issue organic certifications.
• Acceptance of Indian Organic Products: Organic products certified by accredited bodies in India are accepted by importing countries, ensuring international recognition of Indian organic standards.
• PGS-India: PGS-India is a certification system for organic farming implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture through the National Centre for Organic Farming. Unlike the top-down approach of the National Program for Organic Production (NPOP), PGS-India uses a peer-review and self-certification process. This system is supported by the Paramparagat Krishi Vikash Yojana (PKVY), where farmers are responsible for certifying whether nearby farms comply with organic cultivation practices.
• The Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) is an internationally recognized organic quality assurance system, similar to ISO 9000. It is implemented and controlled by committed organic farmer-producers with active participation from consumers, based on verifiable trust. PGS is not an inspection-based certification system; rather, it relies on personal integrity and peer pressure. Farmers pledge that their production processes are free from synthetic chemicals such as fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and hormones, and they adhere to this commitment.
• The "Local Group," consisting of five or more organic farmers, is central to the self-regulatory support system of PGS. The PGS Organic Council harmonizes quality assurance standards and permits the use of its PGS label on products as a mark of quality.

Advantages of Organic Farming/Products

Organic farming is an inherent agricultural practice in India, rooted in ancient methods like crop rotation and natural composting, which enhance crop health and soil fertility. However, the increased use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides has significantly degraded crop quality and soil fertility. Organic farming has the potential to reverse these adverse effects. Here are the various benefits of organic products from a consumption perspective:

• Increased Nutritional Content: Organic farming practices ensure the maintenance of soil nutrition and fertility, leading to better retention of minerals and vitamins in the food grown. This results in higher nutritional content in the produce.
• Free from Poisonous Chemicals: Organic farming discourages the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, resulting in lower levels of toxic substances absorbed by crops. This leads to the production of toxin-free food, reducing health issues associated with these toxins.
• Better and Authentic Taste: Organic food not only has a better nutritional profile but also tastes better. Processed organic foods, being free of preservatives, taste more similar to freshly prepared dishes, enhancing the overall flavor experience.

Advantages of Organic Food

• Longer Storage Life: Organic plants possess better metabolic and structural integrity in their cellular makeup compared to non-organically grown crops. This inherent quality allows organic food to be stored for extended periods without compromising its freshness.
• Scope of Organic Farming in India: The Green Revolution, which emphasized scientific agricultural production through the extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides, is now viewed as a contributor to various health and environmental issues. This approach has led to the contamination of vegetables and food grains, resulting in health-related concerns and lifestyle diseases. Organic farming presents an opportunity to restore traditional farming practices and methods, safeguarding soil and agricultural produce from the contamination associated with chemical inputs.
• Productivity Concerns: It is a recognized fact that the productivity of organic cultivation is generally lower, requiring more organic resources to maintain levels of productivity. As a result, organic farmers may be compelled to sell their produce at premium prices, which could be unaffordable for the average consumer.
• Practicality of Large-Scale Organic Farming: Organic farming may not be feasible for large-scale cultivation necessary to feed a country with a population of 130 crore people. India’s arable land constitutes 2.4% of the world’s total arable land, while the United States holds 6% of global arable land. Despite having only 2% of the world’s population, the US could potentially transition to organic farming entirely. In contrast, India needs to adopt a balanced approach that integrates both organic methods and scientific advancements in agriculture.

Challenges Faced by Organic Farming/Products in India

• Underdeveloped Supply Chain: The supply chain for organic products is not well-developed. Small and mid-sized farmers, especially those in hilly regions and tribal areas, struggle to access markets. There is a lack of pack houses and refrigerated vehicles, leading to spoilage. Organic products need to be stored separately from conventional ones to prevent cross-contamination, but the current supply chain often lacks this capability.
• Certification Issues: Farmers are being subsidised by the government under the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) for India, but these farmers are not allowed to export their products. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) requires third-party certification for exports, which adds an additional hurdle.
• Transition Challenges: When a farmer transitions from conventional chemical-based farming to organic farming, there is a risk of reduced yield due to the withdrawal of chemical inputs and high-yielding seed varieties. Other countries provide subsidies to compensate for this yield loss during the transition period, but India does not have such support.
• Shortage of Organic Inputs: There is a significant shortage of high-quality organic inputs, such as fertilizers and seeds. The available organic fertilizers are insufficient in quantity, and there is also a lack of good quality organic seeds, which increases the risk of yield loss.
• Authenticity Concerns: With many brands offering organic products, it is challenging to determine which brands are genuinely compliant with government guidelines. This raises questions about the authenticity of organic products in the market.

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) is an agricultural approach that emphasizes working in harmony with nature's laws and biodiversity. It aims to enhance soil microbial activity through the use of fermented cow dung and urine, promoting a healthy ecosystem for plants and animals.

• ZBNF emerged as a response to the agrarian crisis exacerbated by the neo-liberalization of the Indian economy, which made small-scale farming increasingly unviable. Farmers faced challenges such as high production costs, volatile market prices, and rising expenses for fossil fuel-based inputs and private seeds, leading to a cycle of debt.
• The concept of 'Zero Budget' signifies farming without credit and without spending money on purchased inputs, while 'Natural farming' refers to cultivating crops without chemicals, in sync with nature.

The foundation of ZBNF lies in the belief that soil contains all the necessary nutrients for plants, which are made accessible through microorganisms. The approach involves four key practices:

• Bijamrit: Coating seeds with a microbial mixture of cow urine and cow dung.
• Jivamrit: Enhancing soil microbes with a mixture of cow dung, cow urine, and jaggery.
• Mulching: Covering soil with crops or residues to create humus and promote beneficial microorganisms.
• Waaphasa: Building soil humus to improve aeration.
• According to ZBNF principles, plants derive 98% of their nutrients from air, water, and sunlight, with the remaining 2% coming from healthy soil rich in friendly microorganisms, similar to natural ecosystems like forests. The practice relies on cow dung and urine from Indian breed cows, particularly the indigenous desi cow, known for the superior microbial content of its dung and urine.
• In ZBNF, farmers are encouraged to practice multi-cropping instead of the single crop method, which involves growing multiple crops on the same land in a given planting season.

Example: Surat Model of Natural Farming

In line with the 75 years of Independence, known as Amrit Kaal, 75 farmers in every Panchayat of Surat district are adopting Natural Farming practices.

Similarities between Organic Farming and ZBNF

• Organic and natural farming both systems discourage farmers from using any chemical fertilizers, pesticides on plants and in all agricultural practices.
• Both farming methods encourage farmers to use local breeds of seeds, and native varieties of vegetables, grains, pulses and other crops.
• Both farming methods promote nonchemical and homemade pest control methods.

Differences between Organic Farming and ZBNF

• Use of Fertilizers: In organic farming, fertilizers and manures like compost, vermicompost, and cow dung are brought in from external sources. In contrast, natural farming does not involve adding any fertilizers, whether chemical or organic, from outside. Instead, it relies on the natural decomposition of organic matter by microbes and earthworms on the soil surface, gradually enriching the soil over time.
• Agro Practices: Organic farming requires basic agricultural practices such as ploughing, tilling, mixing of manures, and weeding. Natural farming, however, does not involve ploughing, tilling, fertilization, or weeding, allowing the ecosystem to function as it would naturally.
• Cost and Ecological Impact: Organic farming can be expensive due to the need for bulk manures and may impact surrounding environments ecologically. On the other hand, natural agriculture is a low-cost method that harmonizes with local biodiversity.

Integrated Farming System (IFS)

The Integrated Farming System (IFS) is a modern and innovative approach that combines various agricultural activities, such as crop production, livestock, aquaculture, and forestry, into a single, interconnected system. The main idea behind IFS is to increase profits and reduce costs by making use of the waste and by-products from one enterprise as inputs for another. This not only boosts production but also multiplies income.

Advantages of Integrated Farming System

• Reduced Production Costs: IFS lowers the production costs of various components by recycling inputs from the by-products of allied enterprises and optimizing resource use. For instance, poultry droppings can be used as feed for fish, and cattle dung mixed with crop residues can be converted into nutrient-rich vermi-compost.
• Sustainable Soil Fertility: IFS promotes sustainable soil fertility and productivity through organic waste recycling, making it resilient and adaptable to climate variability.
• Environmental Protection: Integrated farming helps protect the environment by effectively recycling waste from animal activities such as piggery, poultry, and pigeon rearing, and it also contributes to water conservation.
• Nutritional Food Availability: The integration of allied activities ensures the availability of nutritious food enriched with essential nutrients like protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins.
• Regular Income: IFS provides a stable income through the regular production of items such as eggs, milk, mushrooms, vegetables, honey, and silkworm cocoons from the linked activities.
• Suitable Mix of Activities: A careful selection of agricultural enterprises, such as dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, and sericulture, tailored to the specific agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic status of farmers, can lead to increased prosperity in farming.
• Multiple Objectives: The IFS approach aims for sustainability, food security, farmer security, and poverty reduction. It can be adapted to different agro-climatic zones, resulting in various IFS models like the rice-fish-poultry model, pig/poultry-fish-vegetable model, and rice-fish-vegetable model.
• The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has created 60 different IFS models that are cost-effective, eco-friendly, and socially acceptable. These models are designed to be specific to different locations and are developed with the participation of farmers. The aim is to reduce risks in farming, increase productivity and profitability, and secure the livelihoods of resource-poor small and marginal farmers.

Variability of IFS Models

• While these IFS models are highly specific to their locations, the choice of a model can vary from one place to another and even from farmer to farmer within the same area.
• The net return from an IFS also depends on factors such as the selected model, soil characteristics, and the inputs used.

Dissemination through Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)

• Bio-intensive cropping systems with high productivity potential for different agro-climatic zones have been included in the crop production guides and packages of practices for respective states.
• These models are being disseminated to small and marginal farmers through the nationwide network of ICAR Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).

Agroecology

Agroecology focuses on food production that utilizes nature's resources efficiently without causing harm to them. It thrives by collaborating with local ecosystems, enhancing soil and plant health through available biomass and biodiversity, rather than relying on chemical inputs.

• Agroecology is a holistic approach that combines ecological and social principles in the design and management of food and agricultural systems. It aims to optimize the interactions between plants, animals, humans, and the environment while addressing social aspects for a sustainable and equitable food system.

Worldwide Efforts for Agroecology

• Scientists, grassroots organizations, NGOs, consumers, universities, and public agencies are collaborating with farmers globally to build sustainable and nutritious food systems based on agroecology.

Unsustainability of Present Agricultural System

• The current agricultural system threatens food security and biodiversity. Industrial farming has led to the disappearance of beneficial insects, widespread water pollution, depleted soils, and declining groundwater levels.
• The opportunity cost of investing solely in industrial agriculture has been borne by farmers and natural systems.

Growing Opportunities for Agroecology

• There are unprecedented opportunities to promote agroecology globally as the corporate food system adversely affects public health, the environment, and the welfare of family farmers.
• Agroecology is recognized as a strategy for both mitigating and adapting to climate change.
• Consumers are increasingly seeking healthier food options and a closer connection to food producers.
• Social movements, often led by women and indigenous organizations, are advocating for a healthy food system grounded in environmental and human rights principles.
• The demand for agroecology is on the rise.

What Sets Agroecology Apart

• Agroecology stands out from other sustainable development approaches because it is rooted in bottom-up and territorial processes. This means it focuses on creating solutions that are tailored to local contexts and problems. Agroecological innovations are developed through the co-creation of knowledge, blending scientific research with the traditional and practical knowledge that local producers possess. By doing so, agroecology enhances the autonomy and adaptive capacity of producers and communities, empowering them to be key agents of change.
• Instead of merely adjusting the practices of unsustainable agricultural systems, agroecology aims to transform food and agricultural systems by addressing the root causes of issues in an integrated manner. This approach provides holistic and long-term solutions while explicitly considering the social and economic dimensions of food systems. Agroecology also places a strong emphasis on the rights of women, youth, and indigenous peoples, ensuring that these groups are central to the transformation process.

Benefits of Agroecology

Agroecology offers several benefits that contribute to the enhancement of agricultural systems and the well-being of farmers:

• Fertile Landscapes: Agroecology promotes the restoration and enhancement of fertile landscapes, which are crucial for sustainable agriculture.
• Increased Yields: By improving soil health and biodiversity, agroecology can lead to increased agricultural yields, ensuring food security.
• Soil Health and Biodiversity: Agroecological practices restore soil health and promote biodiversity, which are essential for resilient and productive ecosystems.
• Climate Resilience: Agroecology fosters climate resilience by promoting practices that help farmers adapt to changing climatic conditions and reduce their vulnerability to climate-related shocks.
• Farmers' Well-Being: Agroecology improves the overall well-being of farmers by promoting sustainable livelihoods, better working conditions, and increased autonomy over their farming practices.

In contrast to the current subsidy-based agricultural system dominated by corporations, agroecology represents a forward-looking technology that empowers farmers and communities while respecting traditional knowledge and practices.

Conservation Agriculture: An Overview

Conservation Agriculture (CA) refers to a sustainable agricultural production system that involves a set of farming practices tailored to the specific needs of crops and the local conditions of each region. The primary focus of CA is to protect the soil from erosion and degradation, enhance its quality and biodiversity, and contribute to the preservation of natural resources such as water and air, all while optimizing crop yields.

This innovative approach to resource conservation involves minimal or no soil disturbance, maintaining a vegetative soil cover through crop residues or cover crops, and implementing crop rotations to achieve higher productivity and reduce negative environmental impacts.

Core Principles of Conservation Agriculture

• Minimum Soil Disturbance: This principle advocates for no-tillage or reduced tillage practices to minimize soil disruption.
• Maintenance of Permanent Soil Covers: Keeping the soil covered with vegetation year-round to protect it from erosion and improve its health.
• Cropping System Diversity and Crop Rotations: Implementing diverse cropping systems and rotating crops to enhance soil fertility and reduce pests and diseases.

Advantages of Conservation Agriculture

• Enhanced Crop Productivity: CA-based practices not only boost crop yields but also lower production costs.
• Improved Resource Use Efficiency: Through residue decomposition and increased recycling of plant nutrients, CA enhances the availability of essential nutrients for plants.
• Protection of Organic Matter and Soil: CA helps in conserving organic matter and protecting soil health, along with conserving water.
• Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Implementing CA practices contributes to lowering greenhouse gas emissions, making agriculture more environmentally friendly.

Challenges in Adopting Conservation Agriculture

• Development and Standardization of Technology: There is a need for developing and standardizing farm technology and machinery for seeding with minimal soil disturbance, as well as crop harvesting and management systems.
• Knowledge Gap: Agricultural leaders, extension agents, and farmers may lack awareness about the potential benefits of CA, hindering its adoption.
• Mainstreaming CA: CA needs to be integrated into relevant ministries and departments, supported by adequate resources to ensure farmers receive timely and effective support from trained extension staff.

Necessity of a Paradigm Shift

• There is a pressing need for a paradigm shift in agricultural practices due to widespread resource degradation associated with past strategies that prioritized production without regard for resource integrity. 
• Integrating productivity, resource conservation, soil quality, and environmental concerns is now essential for sustained productivity growth, and Conservation Agriculture offers a viable solution.

Protected Cultivation

• Protected cultivation is a modern method for producing mainly horticultural crops with high quality and quantity. This approach has spread widely around the world in recent decades and is also referred to as Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA). It is highly productive, promotes water and land conservation, and protects the environment.
• The technology involves growing horticultural crops in a controlled environment where factors such as temperature, humidity, light, soil, water, and fertilizers are manipulated according to the specific needs of the crop. This ensures maximum yield and allows for a regular supply of produce, even during off-seasons.
• Crops grown in polyhouses are shielded from extreme conditions like intense heat, bright sunlight, strong winds, hailstones, and cold waves.
• In a polyhouse, every factor influencing a crop can be controlled. Advanced polyhouses are equipped with heating systems and soil heating systems to purify the soil from unwanted viruses and bacteria.
• Protected cultivation of high-value horticultural crops has significant potential to increase income, especially for small farmers in India. This method enables them to produce more crops each year from their land, particularly during off-seasons when prices are higher.

Objectives of Protected Cultivation

• To create a favorable environment for the sustained growth of crops, maximizing their potential even in adverse climatic conditions.
• Protection of plants from abiotic stresses such as temperature extremes, excess or deficit water, and biotic factors like pests and diseases.
• Efficient water use with minimal weed infestation.
• Enhancing productivity per unit area.
• Minimizing pesticide use in crop production.
• Promoting high-value, quality horticultural produce.
• Enabling year-round and off-season production of flowers, vegetables, and fruit crops.
• Producing disease-free and genetically superior transplants.

Different Types of Protected Cultivation

1. Greenhouse/ Polyhouse

A polyhouse or greenhouse is a structure made of translucent materials like glass or polyethylene, where plants grow under controlled climatic conditions. Greenhouses, in particular, trap heat from the sun, creating a warm and conducive environment for plants, even when it is cold outside.

There are various structures of Polyhouses/Greenhouses:

(a) Semi-circular : This is a framed structure covered with UV-stabilized plastic films. Crops are grown under partially controlled conditions. During the day, the structure warms up as sunlight penetrates, heating the plants, soil, and the structure itself. This heat is gradually released at night.

(b) Walk-in tunnels : These tunnels are covered with UV film and are suitable for all types of crops, including flowers and vegetables.

(c) Plastic tunnels : These are smaller structures that create a greenhouse-like effect. They trap carbon dioxide, enhancing photosynthetic activity, and protect plants from harsh weather conditions such as rain, wind, hail, and snow. Plastic tunnels are mainly used for raising plant nurseries.

2. Shade Nets:

A shade net house is a structure made from agro nets or similar woven material that allows the right amount of sunlight, moisture, and air to pass through. These houses are crucial for developing healthy grafts, seedlings, and hardening various horticultural crops, regardless of the climatic conditions.

Plastic Mulching: This involves covering the soil around plants with plastic film to conserve soil moisture, prevent weed growth, and regulate soil temperature.

Advantages of Protected Cultivation:

• Improved produce quality
• Increased productivity
• Efficient resource use
• Enhanced insect and disease control with reduced pesticide use
• Ability to produce exotic, non-native, and off-season vegetables, as well as high-quality seedlings

Challenges of Protected Cultivation

• High initial infrastructure costs
• Lack of skilled labor and technical expertise
• Need for close supervision and monitoring
• Repair and maintenance difficulties
• Requirement for assured marketing due to high resource investment

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare offers various investment subsidies for creating different structures like polyhouses and shade nets through schemes such as the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture, National Horticulture Mission, and Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States.

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Permaculture

Permaculture is a sustainable design system that aims to create harmonious and productive ecosystems by mimicking natural processes. It goes beyond traditional gardening techniques and encompasses a holistic approach to designing human systems that meet our needs while minimizing environmental impact.

• Definition and Origin: Permaculture, originally known as "Permanent Agriculture," has evolved into a comprehensive design philosophy and, for some, a way of life.
• Core Principle: The central theme of permaculture is to create human systems that fulfill human needs by drawing inspiration from natural ecosystems.
• Sustainability: Permaculture aligns with the core requirements for sustainability, focusing on the efficient and harmonious use of resources.
• Framework for Living: It provides an innovative framework for developing sustainable ways of living that are ecologically sound and productive.
• Practical Method: Permaculture offers a practical method for creating ecologically harmonious and efficient systems that can be applied by anyone, anywhere.
• Resource Management: By carefully considering the use of resources such as food, energy, and shelter, permaculture enables individuals to achieve more with less effort, benefiting both the environment and themselves.
• Design Focus: The essence of permaculture lies in designing an ecologically sound way of living in households, gardens, communities, and businesses. This is achieved by cooperating with nature and caring for the Earth and its inhabitants.
• Global Development: Permaculture principles are continually being developed and refined by people worldwide, adapting to different climates and cultural contexts.

Use of Technology in Agriculture

The agriculture sector has undergone a significant transformation over the last 50 years. Improvements in machinery have enhanced the scale, speed, and productivity of farm equipment, leading to more efficient cultivation of larger areas. Additionally, advancements in seeds, irrigation, and fertilizers have greatly increased crop yields. Currently, agriculture is at the beginning of another revolution driven by data and connectivity. Technologies such as artificial intelligence, analytics, connected sensors, and the Internet of Things (IoT) have the potential to further boost yields, optimize the use of water and other resources, and enhance sustainability and resilience in crop cultivation and animal husbandry.

Application of Technology in Agriculture

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) can analyze historical weather data to determine the optimal time for sowing seeds. By leveraging past data from farms, AI can also predict other phases of the farming process, such as when to irrigate and apply fertilizers, to maximize yields while minimizing input costs.
• Farmers are utilizing AI to develop seasonal forecasting models that enhance agricultural accuracy and productivity. These models can anticipate weather patterns months in advance, aiding farmers in their decision-making processes.
• IoT-enabled devices equipped with remote sensors can be placed in fields to monitor crop, soil, humidity, and weather conditions in real time. The data collected by these devices is processed using AI and machine learning (ML) to generate tailored insights for farmers, which can be delivered through apps or messages. This information helps farmers optimize irrigation, pest and disease management, and the application of fertilizers, fungicides, and pesticides.
• Farmers often over-irrigate due to a lack of precise information about the water and input requirements at different stages of a crop’s life cycle. The soil may appear dry on the surface while retaining moisture at the root level. Technology can help address this issue and conserve India’s precious water resources.
• In addition to ground-based data, farmers are also using aerial monitoring to assess their fields. Drone technology equipped with AI-enabled cameras allows farmers and pest control companies to monitor crops continuously for signs of irregular degradation, pests, diseases, or dead soil. Drones can cover large areas more quickly than humans on foot, enabling more frequent monitoring of extensive farms.

AI in Agriculture

AI is increasingly being used in agriculture to analyze vast amounts of data collected from various sources such as farm machinery, drone imagery, and crop analytics. This helps farmers and agricultural technology workers make better decisions and derive more value from the data.

• Optimized Irrigation: AI helps determine the best irrigation practices by analyzing data on weather conditions, temperature, water usage, and soil conditions. This ensures that crops receive the right amount of water, reducing waste and improving yields.
• Crop Selection: By analyzing data on soil conditions and weather patterns, AI can help farmers choose the most suitable crops for a given year. This can include recommendations for hybrid seeds that reduce waste and increase efficiency.
• Greenhouse Gas Reduction: AI can assist in identifying the specific requirements for soil, light, food, and water for different crops, helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and optimize resource use.
• Camera-Enabled Machines: Companies like Blue River Technology are developing AI-powered machines that use image recognition to identify and remove weeds at the point of contact. This technology helps reduce the need for chemical herbicides and minimizes their environmental impact.
• AI-Sowing App by Microsoft: Microsoft has created an AI-based app for farmers in India that uses historical weather data to predict the best times for sowing seeds and other farming activities. This information is sent to farmers via SMS and has resulted in a 30% increase in crop yields.
• Precision Farming: This approach involves using inputs such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides in precise amounts and at the right times to increase average yields compared to traditional farming methods. Precision farming relies on information and technology to manage variability in fields, ensuring optimal profitability, sustainability, and protection of land resources.
• AI Sensors for Disease and Pest Detection: Precision farming utilizes AI technology to detect diseases, pests, and poor plant nutrition in crops. AI sensors can also identify weeds and determine the appropriate herbicides to use, preventing over-application and reducing the presence of harmful toxins in food.
• Horticulture Crop Management: Precision farming is particularly beneficial for horticulture crops, which require continuous monitoring and active management of soil nutrients, pests, and diseases. AI technology can help farmers address these challenges effectively, ensuring high input and output for these crops.
• Addressing Labour Issues: A decline in the number of people entering the farming sector has led to a workforce shortage on many farms. One potential solution to this issue is the use of AI agriculture bots. These bots can supplement the human labor force in various ways. They are capable of harvesting crops more quickly and in larger quantities than human workers, accurately identifying and eliminating weeds, and reducing costs for farms by providing round-the-clock labor. Additionally, chatbots are assisting farmers by answering questions and offering advice and recommendations on specific farming challenges.

Smart Farming

• Smart Farming involves the integration of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into agriculture. This approach utilizes hardware (IoT) and software (SaaS - Software as a Service) to gather data and provide actionable insights for managing all farm operations, both before and after harvest. The data is organized and accessible at all times, covering various aspects of finance and field operations that can be monitored from anywhere in the world.
• IoT in agriculture encompasses sensors, drones, and robots connected through the internet, functioning automatically or semi-automatically to perform tasks and collect data aimed at enhancing efficiency and predictability.
• Semi-automatic robots equipped with arms can identify weeds and apply pesticides to affected plants, helping to preserve the plants and reduce overall pesticide costs. These robots are also useful for harvesting and lifting tasks. Additionally, heavy farming vehicles can be operated remotely via phone screens, with GPS tracking their positions at all times.
• Drones fitted with sensors and cameras are employed for imaging, mapping, and surveying farms. They can be controlled remotely or fly autonomously based on software-controlled flight plans embedded in their systems, working in conjunction with sensors and GPS. Data collected by drones can provide insights into crop health, irrigation, spraying, planting, soil and field conditions, plant counting, and yield prediction, among other things.
• IoT-based remote sensing involves the use of sensors placed throughout farms, such as weather stations, to gather data that is transmitted to analytical tools for analysis. These sensors monitor changes in light, humidity, temperature, shape, and size of crops. The data collected includes information on humidity, temperature, moisture, precipitation, and dew detection.
• Precision Farming helps in determining the weather pattern in farms so that cultivation is done for suitable crops. Computer imaging involves the use of sensor cameras installed at different corners of the farm or drones equipped with cameras to produce images which undergo digital image processing. The images are used for quality control, disease detection, sorting and grading yield and irrigation monitoring through Image processing combined with machine learning which uses images from database to compare with images of crops to determine the size, shape, color and growth therefore controlling the quality.

Traditional Farming

• Same set of practices for cultivation of a crop throughout the region
• Geo-tagging and zone detection not possible
• Application of fertilizers and pesticides throughout the field
• No way to predict weather
• Traditional irrigation method is used to irrigate the field wasting a lot of water resources

Precision Farming

• Each farm is analyzed to see the suitable crops and water requirements for optimization
• Satellite imagery detects the different zones in farms
• Early detection and application at the affected region only, saving costs
• Weather analysis and prediction
• Drip irrigation system with smart IoT enabled sensors track moisture level and apply the water effectively where needed

Advantages

• Higher crop productivity
• Decreased use of water, fertilizers and pesticides which reduces production cost
• Greater efficiency and lower agricultural product prices
• Reduced impact on natural ecosystems
• Less runoff of chemicals into rivers and groundwater

Challenges:

• High Cost
• Lack of technical expertise knowledge and technology
• Not applicable or difficult/costly for small land holdings
• Heterogeneity of cropping systems