Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE - 2 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Historical Context of Later Vedic Age Texts

Complexity in Society

• Political Organization: Later Vedic literature shows a more complex political organization compared to the Rig Veda.
• Social Life: There is a greater intricacy in social life, indicating developments in social structures and relationships.
• Economic Activities: Economic activities are depicted with more detail, reflecting the evolving nature of the economy.

Agriculture and Crops

• Increased Importance: Agriculture becomes more significant in later Vedic texts.
• Mentioned Cereals: Crops like barley (yava), wheat (godhuma), and rice (vrihi) are specifically mentioned.
• Agricultural Operations: There are references to various agricultural activities such as sowing, ploughing, reaping, and threshing.

Farmers' Concerns

• Atharva Veda Charms: The Atharva Veda contains charms to protect against pests and to prevent drought, indicating the worries farmers faced.

Land Ownership and Labour

• Land Occupation: Land was occupied by extended families, with clans having general rights over it.
• Private Property: The concept of private land ownership had not yet developed.
• Household Labour: The household was the primary unit of labour.
• Slavery and Hired Labour: Slaves were not significantly used for productive purposes, and there are no terms for hired labour in this context.

Gifts and Wealth Distribution

• Hymns of Praise: Later Rig Veda hymns praise kings who generously gift cows, horses, chariots, gold, clothes, and female slaves to priests.
• Wealth Concentration: These hymns reflect the concentration of wealth among rulers and the exchanges between kings and priests.

Gift of Land

• Early References: The gift of land is mentioned in later Vedic texts, but the attitude towards this practice is still uncertain.
• Aitareya Brahmana: This text suggests that a king should gift 1,000 pieces of gold, a field, and cattle to the Brahmana who anoints him.
• Earth Goddess Intervention: The Aitareya Brahmana recounts a story where the earth goddess prevents king Vishvakarman Bhauvana from gifting land, highlighting the sacredness of land.

Introduction of Iron

• Vedic Literature References: Later Vedic texts are the earliest to mention iron in the Indian subcontinent.
• Terms for Iron: Terms like krishna-ayas, shyama, and shyama-ayas in the Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda refer to iron.
• Iron in Agriculture: There are indications of iron being used in agricultural practices, such as in ploughs.

Heavy Ploughs

• Taittiriya Samhita Reference: This text mentions ploughs driven by 6 or 12 oxen, suggesting they were heavy and possibly made of iron.

Iron and Smithing

• Atharva Veda Reference: The Atharva Veda mentions an amulet made from a ploughshare, indicating the use of iron and the role of smiths in crafting iron tools.
• Shatapatha Brahmana References: This text connects iron with the peasantry and the subjects or people, indicating its significance in agrarian society.

Iron in Early Agriculture

• Early Buddhist texts from around 600-200 BCE mention iron objects used in agriculture, indicating their prevalence in the Indo-Gangetic region by 1000-500 BCE.
• The Suttanipata references various iron tools, including a ploughshare, suggesting the practice of quenching iron objects, a common technique in ironworking.
• Panini’s Ashtadhyayi includes the term ayovikara kushi, interpreted as ‘iron ploughshare,’ further highlighting the use of iron in farming during this period.

Vedic References to Artisans and Crafts

• Later Vedic texts mention a range of artisans and crafts, including carpenters, metal workers, leather workers, and potters, reflecting the diversity of occupations at the time.
• The Vajasaneyi Samhita and the Taittiriya Brahmana list various vocations, such as smiths, ploughmen, and goldsmiths, indicating the importance of these roles in society.

Transport and Trade

• Ox-drawn wagons were the most common mode of transport, while chariots were used for warfare and sport.
• Horse and elephant riding was also practiced, and although boats are mentioned, their specific use for river or sea travel remains unclear.
• Trade during this period was likely limited, with exchanges occurring through barter as there is no clear evidence of coinage.
• The overall setting depicted in the texts is predominantly rural, although hints of early urbanization are present, as seen in the use of the term nagara meaning town in the Taittiriya Aranyaka.

Education and Learning

• The Chandogya Upanishad lists various subjects of study, including the Veda, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, and military science, indicating a broad spectrum of knowledge during this period.
• The importance of the teacher-pupil relationship and oral instruction in imparting knowledge is emphasized in later Vedic texts.
• The upanayana ceremony, mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana, marks the initiation of young boys into celibate studenthood, highlighting the significance of education in elite male circles during this time.

Leisure Activities and Food in Later Vedic Society

The leisure activities mentioned in later Vedic texts are quite similar to those found in the family books of the Rig Veda. Popular pastimes included chariot racing, dicing (gambling), music, and dancing. Various musicians and their instruments were also noted, including:

• Lute players, flute players, conch blowers, and drummers.
• Musical instruments such as cymbals (aghati), drums, flutes, lutes, and a harp or lyre with 100 strings (vana).

Performers and Dancers

• The term shailusha, found among the victims in the purushamedha in the Vajasaneyi Samhita, likely refers to an actor or dancer.
• The Yajur Veda mentions a vansha-nartin, which could mean a pole-dancer or acrobat.

Food Items

• Apupa: A cake made with ghee or from rice or barley.
• Odana: Grain mixed with milk, water, curds, or ghee, sometimes with beans, sesame, or meat.
• Karambha: Porridge made from grain, barley, or sesame.
• Yavagu: Gruel made from barley.
• Rice: Sometimes fried or cooked with milk and beans.
• Milk Products: Curds, sour milk, and butter were commonly consumed.
• Meat: Eaten on special occasions, such as when honouring guests.
• Intoxicating Beverage: Reference to a drink called sura, with substitutes for the difficult-to-obtain soma plant.

Clothing and Ornaments

• People wore woven cotton clothes and often mentioned were woollen clothes (urna-sutra), likely made from sheep’s wool or goat’s hair.
• Turbans and leather sandals were also part of the attire.
• Ornaments like nishka (necklaces) were worn, and jewels or conch shells were used as amulets to ward off evil.
• The prakasha, either a metal ornament or a mirror, is frequently mentioned in Brahmana texts.

Rise of Monarchy in Ancient India

Warfare is a prominent theme in both early and later Vedic literature. For example, in Book 1 of the Rig Veda Samhita, there is a mention of a battle involving 20 kings and 60,099 warriors, although these numbers may not be taken literally. However, during this time, the nature of political units was evolving.

• By the 6th century BCE, north India exhibited a diverse political landscape, including monarchical states (rajyas), oligarchic states (ganas or sanghas), and tribal principalities. The origins of these developments can be traced back to the period between 1000 and 600 BCE. 
• While some communities retained their tribal characteristics, others were transitioning towards statehood, leading to the formation of larger political units through the amalgamation of tribes.
• For instance, the Purus and Bharatas united to form the powerful Kurus, the Turvashas and Krivis came together to create the Panchalas, and the Kurus and Panchalas appeared to be allies or confederates. Later Vedic texts indicate a shift from a tribal polity based on lineage to a territorial state. 
• Some historians believe that this transition was not yet fully realized. However, since the composition of later Vedic texts coincides with the 6th century BCE, a period when territorial states were clearly established according to other sources, it is reasonable to conclude that the state began to emerge during the latter part of the later Vedic age.
• Scholar Witzel (1995) has proposed that the Kurus represent the first state in India. He suggests that under their king Parikshit, the Kurus, along with their Brahmana priests, initiated the collection and codification of the Vedic corpus into a canon. This process involved rearranging old and new poetic and ritual material to meet the needs of the newly developed shrauta, a type of ritual presided over by various specialists. 
• The transition to a state polity is always the culmination of a number of complex political, social, and economic processes. The emergence of a monarchical state would have involved multiple processes of conflict, accommodation, and alliances. Monarchy involves the concentration of political power in the hands of a king. 
• The supremacy of the rajan was achieved by sidelining rival claimants to power, establishing coercive mechanisms, and control over productive resources. Apart from the monarchies, there were polities that maintained their tribal moorings and where political power was in the hands of assemblies, not kings.

Emergence of Monarchy in Later Vedic Period

• Role of the Rajan: In the later Vedic texts, the rajan is depicted as a leader in battle, similar to his portrayal in the Rig Veda. However, his role expands to include being a protector of settlements and people, particularly Brahmanas. He is seen as a custodian of social order and a sustainer of the rashtra, a term that does not always refer to a clearly defined territory.
• Hereditary Kingship: The concept of hereditary kingship was emerging during this period. Texts like the Shatapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas mention a kingdom of 10 generations (dasha-purusham rajyam), indicating a long lineage of rulers. While there are references in the Atharva Veda to the election of a king, it likely represented a ratification of hereditary succession. An exception to this norm is noted in the case of the Srinjayas, who expelled their king Dushtaritu Paumsayana despite his long royal descent.
• Rituals and Royal Supremacy: Later Vedic rituals elevated the status of the king, portraying him as superior to both his kinsmen and his subjects. Terms like samrajya and samrat reflect the imperial ambitions of certain kings. The rituals, such as the vajapeya and rajasuya sacrifices, emphasized the king's supremacy and his identity with the divine, particularly with Prajapati, the cosmic being.
• Speculations on Monarchy's Origins: The emergence of monarchy was accompanied by speculations about its origins, both in the divine realm and the human sphere. The Aitareya Brahmana narrates how the gods, after being defeated by demons, realized the need for a king to lead them to victory. This narrative underscores the importance of strong leadership in overcoming challenges.
• Divine Connection: Later Vedic texts emphasized the close relationship between the king and the gods. The Shatapatha Brahmana suggests that through specific sacrifices, the king gains identity with Prajapati and rules over many as his representative. This idea aims to elevate the king's status rather than suggest his divinity or worship.
• Ritualized Contests: The rajan's emergence as the supreme political authority involved distancing himself from his kinsmen. This distancing was highlighted through ritualized contests, such as the chariot race in the vajapeya sacrifice and the cattle raid and game of dicing in the rajasuya sacrifice. In earlier times, these contests may have determined the worthy successor, but by the later Vedic period, they became predetermined rituals showcasing the rajan's victory.
• Emergence of Monarchical SystemControl Over Productive ResourcesBali and the Rajan The rajan (king) gained increased control over productive resources, particularly through bali, which shifted from a voluntary offering of agricultural produce and cattle to an obligatory one. The Shatapatha Brahmana (1.3.2.15) illustrates this shift, indicating that the Vaishya (a social class) offers bali because he is under the control of the Kshatriya (warrior class) and must relinquish his stored goods when commanded. The rajan is described as vishamatta, meaning eater of the vish, signifying that he subsisted on what the people produced. However, the rajan’s appropriation of bali did not constitute a clearly defined system of taxation.
• Decline of Assemblies References to the sabha (assembly) and samiti (committee) continue in later Vedic texts, such as the Shatapatha Brahmana (4.1.4.1–6), where the king seeks their aid. However, as royal power increased, the influence of these assemblies likely diminished.
• Role of the Purohita Later Vedic texts highlight the close relationship between the king and his purohita (Brahmana priest and counselor), who is considered subordinate to the king, likened to the relationship between earth and heaven. The purohita’s role is crucial in the rajasuya ceremony, where he introduces the king to the people, emphasizing the king’s authority. Despite the king’s prominence, the system of administration during this period appears to have been rudimentary.
• Connection Between Political and Domestic Spheres Kumkum Roy (1994b) emphasizes the connection between the emergence of the monarchical system, the varna hierarchy (social class system), the organization of kinship relations, and the structure of households. Grand shrauta sacrifices performed by the king legitimized his control over the productive and reproductive resources of his realm, while domestic sacrifices by the grihapati (head of the household) legitimized his control over household resources. Brahmanical texts recognize the rajan as a custodian of social order, reflecting the interconnection between political and domestic spheres.

Varna Hierarchy

Later Vedic texts show the emergence of a class structure where social groups had varying degrees of access to productive resources, although kinship ties remained important. Varna reflected this increasing social differentiation and justified it from the perspective of elite groups. The ideology of varna divided society into four hereditary strata, defining social boundaries, roles, status, and ritual purity.

Purusha-sukta and Social Groups

• The Purusha-sukta in the Rig Veda refers to four social groups: Brahmana, Rajanya (Kshatriya), Vaishya, and Shudra, though the term varna is not used.
• It describes these groups as originating from different parts of a primeval giant's body during a sacrificial ritual, indicating that the varnas were seen as inter-related parts of an organic whole.
• This hymn establishes a hierarchy, with Brahmana at the top and Shudra at the bottom, suggesting that the varnas were considered a natural and unchangeable order.

Initial Ambiguity and Later Fixation

• Initially, there was some ambiguity about the order of the higher varnas.
• In the Panchavimsha Brahmana, Rajanya was placed first, while the Shatapatha Brahmana sometimes listed Kshatriya first.
• However, the order of the four varnas became fixed in the Brahmanical tradition from the time of the Dharmasutras onwards.

Relationship between Brahmana and Kshatriya Varnas

• The relationship between the Brahmana and Kshatriya varnas in ancient India was intricate and multifaceted. Later Vedic texts highlight the crucial role of the purohita (priest) for the king, indicating a close bond between the Rajanya (Kshatriya) and a segment of the Brahmana community. This suggests a collaborative relationship where the priestly class supported the Kshatriya rulers.
• However, there were also tensions between the two varnas. The conflict between the gods Mitra and Varuna is seen as a metaphor for the struggle between the Brahmana and Kshatriya varnas. Mitra symbolized brahma (sacred power), while Varuna represented kshatra (secular power). This reflects the ongoing negotiation between spiritual and temporal authority.

Brahma and Kshatra

• Different texts present varying views on the relationship between brahma and kshatra, describing them as antagonistic, complementary, or interdependent. 
• The Upanishadic philosophy is also interpreted as a response to Kshatriya challenges against Brahmanical dominance in the realm of ultimate knowledge, indicating a philosophical contest between the two varnas.

The Three Varnas

• The first three varnas— Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas —were referred to as dvija, meaning ‘twice-born.’ This designation indicates their eligibility for the upanayana ceremony, which was considered a second birth and granted them the right to perform certain sacred rituals.
• These varnas were entitled to perform the agnyadheya, the initial installation of the sacred fire, marking the commencement of ritual activities expected from householders.

Qualities Endowed by Rajasuya Sacrifice

• The rajasuya sacrifice was believed to bestow specific qualities upon each of the four varnas:
• Brahmanas received tejas (lustre), signifying spiritual and intellectual brilliance.
• Kshatriyas were endowed with virya (valour), granting them courage and strength for governance and protection.
• Vaishyas were given prajati (procreative powers), ensuring their role in agriculture, trade, and family lineage.
• Shudras were blessed with pratishtha (stability), providing them with a foundation for their service roles.

Performance of Sacrifices

• Later texts, such as the Shrautasutras, outlined specific details for performing sacrifices like the soma sacrifice and the agnyadheya, varying according to the varna of the sacrificer.
• These regulations reflected the evolving understanding of each varna’s role in ritual practices and the social hierarchy.

Gender and the Household

The household was a crucial institution, not just for its members but also for the larger social and political units it belonged to. A series of household rituals legitimized the householder’s control over the productive and reproductive resources of the household. In later Vedic literature, the diverse household forms of earlier times gave way to an idealized griha unit led by the grihapati.

Household Control and Ideology

• The grihapati had authority over the household’s productive resources and his wife’s reproductive capacity. This control was upheld by a domestic ideology that defined the hierarchy within the family.
• Productive resources were passed down from father to son, and rituals like the agnyadheya highlighted the importance of connections with patrilineal ancestors ( pitris ) .

Marriage and Lineage

• Marriage ( vivaha ) was vital for sustaining the patrilineage. Only a married man with his legitimate wife could perform sacrifices as yajamana.
• The Grihyasutras, dating back to this period, outline various types of marriage. Later texts mention forms like marriage by capture and a woman choosing her spouse.
• Polygyny was more common than polyandry, with kings permitted multiple wives and concubines.

Household Authority and Women’s Roles

• The head of the household ( grihapati ) had authority over the productive resources and the reproductive capacity of his wife. This authority was reinforced by a domestic ideology that established clear lines of dominance and subordination within the family.
• Productive resources were typically passed down from father to son, emphasizing the importance of patrilineal succession. Rituals such as the agnyadheya underscored the significance of maintaining ties with patrilineal ancestors, known as pitris.

Roles and Identity of Women

• Women were increasingly defined by their relationships with men. Terms like stri, yosha, and jaya became closely associated with wifehood and motherhood, whether actual or potential.
• This shift in identity reflected the growing emphasis on women’s roles within the household as daughters-in-law and mothers.

Types of Marriage and Practices

• The Grihyasutras provide lists of six or eight types of marriage, ranging from Brahma (the most prestigious) to Asura (often involving the purchase of the bride).
• Later Vedic texts introduce the idea of marriage by capture and a woman’s right to choose her spouse.
• Polygyny (one man having multiple wives) was more common than polyandry (one woman having multiple husbands).
• Kings had the privilege of having numerous wives and concubines.

Widow Remarriage and Marriage Practices

• Widow remarriage, where a widow marries her deceased husband’s younger brother, is referenced in later texts.
• The Surya-sukta ( Rig Veda 10.85) reflects later Vedic views on marriage, portraying the bride as both a valuable asset and a potential threat.
• Marriage ceremonies appeared to involve mainly the bride, groom, and their close relatives, with the priest playing a significant role in the Atharva Veda (14.1–2) to mitigate the bride’s perceived dangers and ensure her integration into her new family.

Women in Vedic Texts

• Praises and Rituals: Some later Vedic texts, like the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, acknowledge the importance of women. The Shatapatha Brahmana sees the wife as essential to her husband, while the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad highlights the value of having a knowledgeable daughter.
• Exclusion from Vedic Study: Despite this, women were largely barred from studying the Vedas. They were required to be present as wives during certain sacrifices, but could not perform these rituals on their own. Some later texts even suggested using a representation of the wife, like a gold or grass figure, instead of the actual person.
• Similarity to Shudras: In many respects, the status of women, regardless of their varna (social class), was comparable to that of a Shudra. The later Dharmashastra’s view of women and Shudras being alike has roots in earlier Vedic texts, such as the Shatapatha Brahmana.
• Menstrual Taboos: Later Vedic texts also portray menstrual blood as harmful and impure. A wife who is menstruating is not allowed to take part in sacrifices, which must be delayed or conducted without her. The Taittiriya Samhita outlines various restrictions regarding menstruating women, including avoiding conversation with them, sitting near them, or eating food prepared by them.
• Indra and Vishvarupa: In a story from the Taittiriya Samhita, when Indra killed Vishvarupa, the son of the god Tvashtri, he is said to have passed on part of the guilt for killing a Brahmana to women. This guilt allegedly manifested as women’s menstrual cycles.
• Expectations of Women: Women were expected to be obedient and submissive. The Shatapatha Brahmana describes a virtuous woman as one who makes her husband happy, bears male children, and does not argue with him. According to the same text, women do not have ownership over themselves or any inheritance.
• Views on Daughters and Sons: The Atharva Veda portrays being single as a severe misfortune for women and criticizes the birth of daughters. The Aitareya Brahmana considers daughters a source of distress and believes only sons can bring salvation to the family. The desire for male children is evident in various hymns, with rituals like pumsavana aimed at ensuring the birth of a son. The Atharva Veda even contains spells to change a female fetus into a male one.
• Women as Gifts and Commodities: Women are depicted as gifts and items of trade, with instances of rajas giving their daughters to sages as a means of gaining favor. The only ritual exchange involving women was the giving of initial alms to a brahmachari by his mother or his teacher’s wife. The growing social differentiation and the rise of a state were linked to the increasing subjugation of women.

In later Vedic texts, women's work is described as including tending cattle, milking cows, and fetching water. There are also mentions of various skilled female workers such as:

• Vayitri: A female weaver.
• Siri: Another term for a female weaver.
• Peshaskari: A female embroiderer.
• Bidalakari: A female splitter of bamboo.
• Rajayitri: A female dyer.
• Upalaprakshini: A woman corn grinder.

The Shatapatha Brahmana also mentions women carding wool.
Some notable women from the Vedic texts include:

• Apala: Described in the Rig Veda as having taken care of her father’s fields.
• Vishpala: A woman warrior who lost a leg in battle, mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• Mudgalini and Vadhrimati: Other references to women warriors.
• Gargi and Maitreyi: Women who participated in philosophical debates with Upanishadic sages.

Religion, Ritual, and Philosophy

The Later Vedic literature presents various ideas about creation, with different hymns offering distinct perspectives. The Purusha-sukta depicts creation as a result of a primordial sacrifice, while other hymns suggest creation emanates from the sun or from Hiranyagarbha, the golden embryo. 

• A hymn dedicated to the god Vishvakarman (10.81) envisions the creator god as an artisan— a sculptor, smith, woodcutter, or carpenter— and as the first sacrificer and the sacrificial offering. The Nasadiya hymn in Book 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita offers a profound and abstract exploration of the mysteries of creation.
• In the family books of the Rig Veda, certain gods were invoked together in sacrificial rituals, creating connections among them. Later hymns emphasized these connections further. There are 40 hymns in the Rig Veda addressed to the Vishvadevas, all the gods. 
• Some hymns suggest that various gods are manifestations of the same divine being, as seen in Rig Veda 1.164, which highlights the different names of Agni, Indra, and Vayu while asserting the existence of one being referred to by many names (ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti).

The Sacrificial Ritual of the Brahmana Texts

The Brahmana texts depict a time when sacrifices had become more elaborate, lengthy, and costly. Sacrifice is portrayed as the act that created the world, and its correct performance was deemed essential for regulating both life and the world. Some sacrifices involved only one priest, while others required the participation of many, highlighting the importance of ritual specialists. The god Prajapati, closely associated with sacrifice, emerges as the most significant deity in the Brahmanas.

The Upanishads

The Upanishads are ancient texts that explore deep philosophical ideas, particularly the concepts of atman (the individual soul) and brahman (the universal spirit or reality). The term "Upanishad" suggests the act of sitting close to a teacher to receive profound knowledge. This knowledge is considered crucial for liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth and is not easily understood or explained. It is conveyed through discussions, debates, stories, and analogies.

• Early Texts: The oldest Upanishads are written in prose, while later ones are in verse. The Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads are among the earliest.
• Content and Themes: The Upanishads introduce key ideas such as karma (action), rebirth, and the concept of a single, eternal reality. They also discuss practices like meditation and yoga.
• Atman and Brahman: Atman refers to the individual soul, while brahman represents the ultimate reality. The Upanishads explore the relationship between these two concepts. Brahman is described as a vital force that sustains and animates life, though its precise nature is difficult to grasp.
• Nature of Brahman: Various Upanishads attempt to define brahman. For instance, the Taittiriya Upanishad describes brahman as the source, sustainer, and ultimate destination of all beings. The Mundaka Upanishad uses metaphors, like a spider spinning its web, to illustrate how everything arises from brahman.
• Later Developments: In later texts, brahman is sometimes equated with a divine being, reflecting an evolution in the understanding of this concept.
• Brahman is a complex idea in the Upanishads, representing the eternal and imperishable reality of the universe. It is described as the source of all beings, something that sustains and enters all beings. The Upanishads struggle to define brahman clearly, acknowledging its profound nature. For instance, the Kena Upanishad suggests that even the gods cannot fully comprehend brahman. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Mundaka Upanishad offer insights into brahman, portraying it as an imperceptible force from which everything arises, much like a spider spinning its web or hair growing from a living being. Over time, later Upanishads began to depict brahman in a manner similar to a divine god.
• Brahman is the ultimate reality that exists throughout the universe, while the Atman is the ultimate reality within an individual's self, representing the imperishable essence of who they are. The Upanishads offer various explanations of the Atman. For instance, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.7.23) describes the Atman as the inner knowing subject, which perceives things without being seen, hears without being heard, understands without being understood, and knows without being known. 
• In the Chhandogya Upanishad (3.14.2–3), the Atman is depicted as residing deep within the heart, smaller than a grain of rice, barley, or mustard seed, and even smaller than a millet grain or kernel. Paradoxically, it is also described as being larger than the earth, the space between the earth and the sky, and even larger than all the worlds combined.

Popular Beliefs and Practices

• Brahmanas, Upanishads, and Aranyakas: These texts were not reflective of popular beliefs and practices. The Brahmanas were manuals for sacrificial priests, while the Upanishads represent an esoteric quest for a unique type of self-knowledge. 
• Atharva Veda: In contrast, the Atharva Veda contains various charms and spells related to common concerns such as wealth, children, prosperity, and health.  
• It also includes hymns related to marriage and death. Despite being considered the latest Veda in terms of language and form, some ideas and practices in the Atharva Veda are clearly very old. 

Archaeological Profiles of Different Regions of the Subcontinent, c. 2000–500 BCE

Let's shift our focus from literature to archaeology. This part of the chapter presents an overview of the cultural sequences found in various regions of the subcontinent based on archaeological evidence. We continue from where the previous chapters left off, organizing the discussion into two main parts:

(i) Neolithic–Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures

• The initial section covers the Neolithic–Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic cultures.

• Some regions and sites are given more attention not because they were more significant, but because they have been studied more thoroughly.

(ii) Early Iron Age Cultures

• The second section focuses on early Iron Age cultures.

• We can assume that hunter-gatherer communities continued to exist during these centuries, interacting with agricultural and pastoral groups.

Due to the limited availability of published reports and well-defined archaeological sequences for certain regions, the discussion prioritizes areas with more robust evidence.

The North-West and North

In the north-west region, the mature Harappan culture was succeeded by the late Harappan phase, which is characterized by the Jhukar culture in Sindh and the Cemetery-H culture in Punjab. This transition involved both continuity and change, with the most notable difference being the near disappearance of urban features.

The Jhukar Culture

• The Jhukar culture is identified through excavations at sites like Jhukar, Chanhudaro, and Amri.
• Its distinctive pottery features buff ware with a red or cream slip, adorned with black paintings, showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions.
• However, there was a decline in Harappan-type cubical stone weights and female figurines.
• Round stamp seals replaced the typical rectangular Harappan seals, and writing became limited to potsherds.

The Cemetery-H Culture

• The Cemetery-H culture, found at sites like Harappa, exhibited different burial practices over time.
• In the lower levels, graves primarily consisted of extended burials with pottery showing some continuity with earlier traditions, alongside new forms and designs.
• By the upper levels, urn burials with disarticulated bones became common.
• M. R. Mughal's research in the Bahawalpur area revealed significant changes in settlement patterns during the Cemetery-H phase.
• While some large settlements (e.g., Kudwala and several sites ranging from 15 to 20 hectares) existed, most sites were small, under 5 hectares.
• Many mature Harappan settlements were abandoned, and late Harappan communities emerged in new locations.
• The total number of sites decreased from 174 (mature Harappan) to 50 (late Harappan), with a decline in industrial sites and an increase in multifunctional sites combining habitation with craft production.
• Additionally, there was a rise in short-duration camp sites.
• This decline in settlements and population was attributed to the drying up of the Hakra river.

The Gandhara Grave Culture

• Between Peshawar and Chitral, on both sides of the Hindu Kush mountains, several cemeteries belonging to the Gandhara Grave culture have been identified.
• C-14 dating for this culture ranges from around 1710 BCE to 200 BCE.
• Notable sites include Loebanr, Aligrama, Birkot Ghundai, Kherari, Timargarha, Lalbatai, Kalakoderay, Balambat, and Zarif Karuna.
• Graves typically consist of an oblong pit, sometimes with stone lining, covered with a stone slab.
• The pit is often part of a larger upper pit filled with soil and charcoal, usually surrounded by a circle of stones.
• There are three main types of burials: flexed burials, post-cremation burials (including those in urns), and fractional burials.
• Both single and multiple burials are found, with notable instances like the site of Katelai, where horses were buried with their masters.
• Grave goods typically include various pottery forms, such as tall goblets, pedestal cups, beakers, and bottles, along with female figurines and copper/bronze objects like pins and a bronze horse model.
• Iron objects are relatively rare.

Mythological Motifs on Cemetery-H Pottery

The Cemetery-H urns feature not only naturalistic designs like leaves, trees, and stars, but also a fascinating array of what appear to be mythological motifs.

Among these motifs are:

• Peacocks with a human form depicted in the middle.
• Bulls or cows with plant-like attachments to their horns.
• In one scene, two long-horned animals are facing each other, being held by a man with long, wavy hair, while a dog appears to be menacingly skipping behind one of the animals.

These scenes have been interpreted in various ways by scholars. Some have attempted to connect them with the concepts of death and afterlife found in the Vedas. However, it is important to note that all these interpretations remain speculative and open to different viewpoints.

Designs on Cemetery H Pots

The Ghaligai cave sequence is a significant reference for the study of the Gandhara Grave culture. This sequence is divided into three phases: V, VI, and VII, each representing different stages of the culture.

Phase V

• In Phase V, graves were located on the hill-sides, and cist graves made of vertical and horizontal stone slabs were common.
• Post-cremation burials were more prevalent than inhumations during this phase.
• Remains of rectangular stone houses were found, along with various types of wheel-made pots and copper and bone artefacts.

Phase VI

• Phase VI saw an increase in inhumations compared to post-cremation burials.
• Copper artefacts continued to be present, and there was a variety of fine wheel-made pottery, including chalices and cup-on-pedestal designs.

Phase VII

• Phase VII marked the late phase of the Gandhara Grave culture, featuring wheel-made red pottery and human terracotta figurines.
• The use of iron also became evident during this phase.
• There was a similarity between some pottery types from Periods V–VII and those found in parts of Central Asia.

Gufkral (Neolithic to Megalithic Period)

Gufkral is an archaeological site located in the Kashmir Valley of India. It has provided significant evidence of human habitation and cultural practices from the Neolithic to the Megalithic period.

Neolithic Phase (Period I)

• The Neolithic phase at Gufkral is characterized by a variety of pottery types, including burnished grey ware, gritty red ware, and thick dull-red ware.
• There was a notable increase in the proportion of thick dull-red ware and wheel-made pottery compared to earlier periods.
• The presence of large finished and unfinished ring stones indicates specific craft activities.
• Other artifacts from this period include a copper point, a wooden bead, pestles, spindle whorls, a fine awl, and a miniature pot.
• Bone tools were less common, but there were innovations such as tool handles made from sheep or goat bones and bone marrow sockets.
• The faunal remains from this period included bones of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, and fowl, with sheep and goat bones being more numerous.
• Wild animal bones were rare, with ibex being the only significant wild species found.
• The grains found included those from the preceding Neolithic period, with rice and millet appearing towards the end of Period II.

Megalithic Phase (Period II)

• The Megalithic phase at Gufkral is marked by the presence of fallen menhirs and a thick habitational deposit.
• The flooring during this period was approximately 10 cm thick, with some breaks marked by refuse pits reaching natural soil levels.
• These refuse pits contained a large amount of broken pottery and animal bones, indicating waste disposal practices.
• The pottery continued to show links with the Neolithic period, but there was an increase in certain types, particularly thick dull-red ware and wheel-made pottery.
• The presence of iron artifacts suggests advancements in metalworking during this phase.

Other Sites and Comparisons

• Burzahom: Similar to Gufkral, Burzahom also displayed a transition from the Neolithic to the Megalithic phase, with changes in pottery styles and the introduction of metal objects.
• Kiari (Ladakh): Kiari provided evidence of handmade pottery akin to that found in Gufkral's Period II, along with structural remains like hearths and stone artifacts such as saddle querns and pestles. Domesticated animal bones were also discovered, indicating similar subsistence practices.
• Almora (Uttarakhand Himalayas): The Almora region showcased various megalithic burial forms such as dolmens, cairns, menhirs, and cists. Cist burials in this area were associated with a range of pottery types, including red, grey, and black pots, as well as horse burials, indicating diverse burial practices.

The late Harappan phase

Late Harappan Sites: There are 563 identified late Harappan sites between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers. Most of these settlements are small, covering less than 5 hectares.

Sanghol Findings: At Sanghol in Punjab, evidence includes:

• Mud floors with post holes and hearths.
• Mud-brick structures.
• Storage pits, kilns, and a fire altar.

Dadheri Settlement: The late Harappan settlement at Dadheri featured:

• Mud houses built on a mud platform.
• Artefacts such as copper and terracotta objects, along with beads made of carnelian and lapis lazuli.

Banawali Discoveries: At Banawali in Haryana, evidence includes:

• Mud houses and a wide range of artefacts.
• Faience ornaments, beads made of semi-precious stones, and objects crafted from copper, clay, and terracotta.

Palaeo-botanical Remains from Sanghol: The analysis of plant remains from Sanghol, dated to c. 1900–1400 BCE, revealed a variety of crops and plants, including:

• Grains: Hulled barley, naked barley, dwarf wheat, bread wheat, jowar millet, Italian millet, khesari (a type of pea), field pea, lentil, chickpea, horse gram, and linseed.
• Vegetables and Pulses: Sesame, hyacinth bean, and Egyptian clover (barseem).
• Fruits: Grape, lemon, karaunda (a type of berry), anwala (Indian gooseberry).
• Other: Opium poppy seeds.

Plant Remains from Mohrana: The plant remains identified at Mohrana included hulled and naked six-row barley, dwarf wheat, club wheat, lentil, and grape pips.

Chalcolithic Cultural Sequence in the Doab: The cultural sequence in the doab region includes:

• Late Harappan phase.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture.
• Copper hoards.
• Black and Red Ware (BRW) phase.

Late Harappan Sites in the Doab: There are nearly 70 late Harappan sites in the doab region, primarily along the higher banks of Yamuna tributaries, including: Hindon, Krishni, Kathanala, and Maskara.

Site Characteristics: Most settlements are small, with the largest measuring 200 × 200 meters. The average distance between settlements is 8–12 kilometers, and the deposit thickness is 1–2 meters.

Excavated Sites: Three sites have been excavated: Alamgirpur in Meerut district, Hulas, and Bargaon in Saharanpur district. The late Harappan occupation at Hulas may date back before 2000 BCE and continued until around 1000 BCE.

Structural Evidence: There is limited structural evidence from late Harappan sites in the doab. Generally, houses were made of wattle and daub. 

At Hulas:

• Earliest Phase: Rectangular mud-brick structures with rammed floors, post-holes, and hearths were identified.
• Middle Phase: Clusters of circular wattle-and-daub structures, possibly storage bins, were found inside some rectangular mud houses.
• Final Stage: Five round furnaces were discovered in some structures, along with a few burnt bricks.