Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE - 4 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Pottery from Different Periods, Maski

Hallur, situated along the Tungabhadra River in the Dharwar region, exhibits distinct pottery styles from various periods. Period I, identified as Neolithic, is further divided into earlier and later phases. Earlier Phase : The round wattle-and-daub huts had floors made of stone chips and river sand. 

• The pottery primarily consisted of handmade plain and burnished grey wares, along with some reddish-brown ware featuring purple paintings. Later Phase : The introduction of painted Black and Red Ware marked this phase. Stone tools from this period included ground and polished tools, as well as microliths. Other artefacts discovered included copper fishhooks, double axes, and beads made of steatite, quartz, bone, and shell. A notable find was a double urn burial. Animal bones from this period included those of cattle, sheep, and goats, with horse bones appearing in the later phase. Calibrated dates for Hallur Period I range between circa 2000 and 1400 BCE.
• The subsistence base of southern Neolithic–Chalcolithic communities encompassed agriculture, animal domestication, and hunting. Evidence from sites like Tekkalakota and Hallur revealed the presence of horse gram and ragi, while Paiyampalli yielded horse gram and green gram. 
• These crops remain staples in the region today. It is believed that Neolithic–Chalcolithic farmers utilized terracing on hillsides for cultivation. The abundance of cattle bones, many with cut marks, across various sites underscores the significance of cattle rearing. Figurines of humped cattle are prevalent, and these animals are also depicted in rock paintings at sites such as Maski. Recent discoveries of mesolithic and Neolithic rock paintings featuring humped bulls in a distinctive style have been reported in the rock shelters at Budagavi, located in the Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh.
• A recent re-examination of plant and animal remains from seven Neolithic sites in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh has shed light on subsistence patterns in southern Neolithic communities. The sites examined include Hallur, Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Hiregudda, Kurugodu, Hattibelagallu, and Velpumadugu. 
• Domesticated Animals : Cattle were the most crucial domesticated animals, with goats and sheep being less significant. There is evidence suggesting the domestication of chickens. Bones of water buffaloes were found, but it is unclear if they were domesticated. 
• Wild Animals : Wild animals such as antelope, deer, and pig were hunted for food. Freshwater resources like fish and molluscs were occasionally utilized, even at sites located away from rivers. 
• Cattle Size : Measurements of cattle bones indicate that the cattle herded by southern Neolithic people were of medium to medium-heavy build. 
• Cropping Pattern : The emphasis was on kharif (summer) crops, including small millets, pulses (such as moong bean), and horse gram. Other crops like wheat, barley, pigeon pea, pearl millet, and hyacinth bean were selectively grown, with wheat and barley likely being winter crops. Fruits and tubers were gathered during the dry season. 
• Year-Round Occupation : The evidence of plants cultivated in different seasons aligns with the thickness of the occupational deposit at these sites, suggesting year-round occupation.

From Copper to Iron: Early Iron Age Cultures of the Subcontinent

The transition from the Copper-Bronze Age to the Iron Age marked a significant technological shift worldwide. This shift raises several intriguing questions:   

• Was iron smelting an accidental by-product of copper smelting?    
• Did the smelting and working of iron require a massive technological leap, or were they within the capabilities of coppersmiths?   
• Why did some communities, after using metals like copper and bronze for centuries, suddenly start making and using iron tools?  

To understand these questions, we need to consider some important technological aspects:   

• Melting Points: Copper melts at 1083°C, while iron melts at a much higher temperature of 1534°C. This means that iron smelting requires furnaces capable of maintaining very high temperatures.
• Impurities and Conditions: Iron ore contains more impurities than copper ore and requires specific conditions for successful smelting. A temperature of 1250°C must be maintained in the furnace to separate unwanted gangue materials from the smelted material.
• Air and Fuel: A good blast of air and a constant supply of fuel are essential for iron smelting.
• Fluxes: Fluxes, which are smelting aids, play a crucial role in the smelting process. They are added to molten ore to combine with impurities and form slag that can be extracted.
• Carburization: The technology of carburization, which involves heating iron with carbon to produce steel, was another important step that needed to be mastered before iron could be widely used.
• Evidence from sites like Lothal, Mohenjodaro, Pirak, Allahdino, Ahar, and Gufkral suggests that certain chalcolithic communities were familiar with iron and capable of smelting it from ores.    This indicates that these communities had some knowledge of iron smelting and working, although on a small scale.  
• Initial iron extraction may have occurred accidentally in copper-smelting furnaces when high temperatures were reached, either due to the presence of iron oxide in the copper ore or the use of haematite flux. However, this represented an experimental stage, and the large-scale use of iron and technical proficiency in ironworking developed gradually over time.
• Copper ores are less widely available than iron ores. A decline in trade networks may have prompted communities to replace copper with iron, especially once they acquired the necessary technological knowledge for iron smelting and recognized iron's superior hardness and durability compared to copper and bronze.

Beginning of Iron Technology vs. Iron Age

• The start of iron technology is different from the start of the Iron Age. We need to distinguish between finding a few iron objects at a site and the significant use of iron. But how do we determine what 'significant use' means?

Assessing Significant Use

• Total Volume: We need to look at the overall amount of iron artifacts and compare it to other metals and materials.
• Nature and Purpose: The type of iron objects and their intended use are important factors.
• Everyday Activities: It's crucial to identify when people began using iron for daily tasks, especially in production.

Iron in Agriculture

• For agricultural societies, we must determine when iron tools like ploughs, hoes, and sickles started being used in farming operations.

Significance

• This marks the true beginning of the Iron Age.
• The transition to using iron for essential tools and implements represents a significant technological advancement in these societies.

Early Evidence of Iron Use in the Subcontinent

Availability of Iron Ores

• Iron ores suitable for pre-industrial smelting are found throughout the subcontinent, except for the alluvial river valleys.
• Later Vedic texts indicate a familiarity with iron and its use in agriculture in the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Ganga valley around 1000–500 BCE.

Archaeological Evidence

• Archaeological findings provide detailed evidence for the beginning of iron technology and the Iron Age in various parts of the subcontinent.
• Early iron-using centers are identified in regions such as Baluchistan, the Indo-Gangetic divide, Rajasthan, eastern India, Malwa, central India, Vidarbha, the Deccan, and South India.

Pre-Industrial Smelting

• All identified early iron-using centers are located in or near iron ore resources and have evidence of pre-industrial smelting.
• There is a misconception that iron technology was introduced into the subcontinent by the Indo-Aryans.

Origin of Iron Technology

• Chakrabarti’s analysis suggests that iron technology did not diffuse into the Indian subcontinent from West Asia or elsewhere.
• The use of iron in central and South India likely began earlier than in the north-west or the Ganga valley, with iron entering the productive system in most parts of the subcontinent by around 800 BCE.
• However, recent findings from certain sites in Uttar Pradesh have significantly altered this understanding.

Regional Overview

• The following section summarizes evidence of early Iron Age zones in the subcontinent.
• Some regions are not mentioned either due to lack of exploration or because iron appeared there at a later date.
• For example, there is no evidence of iron in Assam, Orissa, and Gujarat before the historical period.
• The situation in the Punjab plains and Sindh remains unclear.

Megaliths in India: A Closer Look

• Megaliths are large stone monuments that have been found in various parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The term "megalith" comes from the Greek words "megas," meaning great or big, and "lithos," meaning stone. In India, megaliths are present in the far south, the Deccan plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli ranges, and the northwest. Some tribal communities in India, such as the Khasis of Assam and the Mundas of Chotanagpur, still practice the tradition of making megaliths.
• The term "megalithic culture" refers to the cultural remains found in and around megaliths. However, it is now understood that there are significant variations in the cultural remains associated with different megaliths, so the term "megalithic cultures" is more appropriate. Megaliths reflect various burial styles that emerged at different times and places, some of which can be traced back to the neolithic–chalcolithic period. For example, pit and urn burials were found in South Indian neolithic–chalcolithic sites, and stone-marked burials were discovered at Watgal. Chamber tombs, a type of megalithic structure, represent a new development in burial practices.
• There are three basic types of megaliths: 
  (a) Chamber Tombs, 
  (b) Unchambered Tombs, and 
  (c) Megaliths Not Connected with Burials. 
• Chamber tombs consist of a chamber made of vertical slabs of stone, topped by a horizontal capstone. If the chamber is underground, it is called a cist; if it is partly underground, it is known as a dolmenoid cist; and if it is fully above ground, it is called a dolmen. Chamber tombs may have a hole called a "porthole" in one of the vertical slabs and can include features like passages and transepts that divide the chamber into sections. 
• Examples of chamber tombs include topikals and kudaikals found in Kerala and Karnataka. In topikals, the burial urn is placed in an underground pit and covered by a low, convex capstone, while in kudaikals, the urn is placed in a chamber capped by a large hemispherical capstone.

Burial Practices

• There are three types of unchambered burials: Pit Burials, Urn Burials, and Sarcophagus Burials.
• Pit Burials involve placing funerary remains in a pit and can be marked in several ways:
• Pit circle: A circle of large stones marks the burial.
• Cairn: A heap of large stones is piled on top.
• Cairn stone circle: Both a stone circle and piled-up stones are present.
• Menhir: A single large standing stone slab marks the burial.
• Urn Burials involve placing funerary remains in a large pot or urn, sometimes covered by a stone slab.
• Sarcophagus Burials consist of a terracotta trough, often with legs and a lid, containing the funerary remains.
• Urn and sarcophagus burials are often included among megalithic burials, even if they are not marked by stones.
• Some megaliths consist of alignments of large stones arranged in a geometric pattern, but their precise function and significance are not always clear.

Beliefs and Social Organization

• Megaliths are easier to describe in terms of their shape and size than to understand the beliefs they reflect.
• These structures were likely an important part of the lives and belief systems of the people who built them.
• Unlike neolithic-chalcolithic burials, which are often within habitation areas, megalithic burials are located separately.
• The separation of the living and the dead indicates a shift in social organization.
• Megaliths reflect various funerary practices, including extended, fractional, post-excarnate, and post-cremation burials.
• Some graves contain the remains of more than one person, suggesting family vaults or simultaneous death.
• The presence of grave goods, such as weapons, pottery, and ornaments, indicates a belief in the afterlife.
• Some megaliths are clearly funerary sites, while others may serve as memorials for the dead.

Megaliths and Their Contexts

• The megaliths in the Vindhyas are from a pre-iron chalcolithic period, while those in peninsular India are usually linked to the iron age.
• Megalithic sites vary in age, with some dating back to around 1300 BCE and others continuing into the early centuries CE.
• A C-14 date from Adichanallur suggests that some megaliths could date as late as the 12th century CE.
• Due to their widespread distribution and the range of dates and contexts, megaliths do not represent a single, uniform culture.

The North-West

• In Baluchistan, iron objects such as vessels, javelin heads, sword blades, arrowheads, spearheads, a horseshoe, and a fishhook have been discovered in cairn burial sites. However, dating these burials is challenging.
• Some scholars propose a date between c. 1100 and 500 BCE, but the burials may be from a later period.
• At Pirak in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, iron artefacts were scarce in Level VI but increased in Levels IV and III, with arrowheads being the predominant type. A blacksmith’s furnace indicates local iron production.
• Pottery types and stone blades showed continuity from the chalcolithic to early iron-bearing levels, but a new grey or black ware pottery emerged.
• Excavations in Level IV revealed rooms within an enclosing wall, featuring wooden lintels, ovens, fireplaces, and storage jars. Level III saw the rebuilding of houses with increased craft activity, evidenced by more fireplaces, ovens, and artefacts, including terracotta seals and beads.
• Bone points, mostly made of antler and decorated with incised circlets, were also found. The earliest iron evidence at Pirak is dated between c. 1000 and 800 BCE.
• The Gandhara Grave culture in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan shows iron objects appearing in Period VII, dating to the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. Iron objects such as spearheads, arrowheads, pins, spoons, rings, forks, and an axe indicate continuity from the earlier chalcolithic phase.
• Iron Artifacts in Period III:Saraikhola: Iron appears in the second phase of graves from Period III, including artifacts like two rings, a rod, and an iron clasp from a necklace, possibly dating to the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. 
• Gufkral, Kashmir: An iron object dating to around 1000 BCE was found in megalithic levels, with significant development of the iron industry occurring in Period III. 
• Kumaon–Garhwal Region: Uleni site in the upper Ramganga basin revealed heaps of slag and iron objects, indicating it was an iron smelting and working site, with calibrated dates of 1022–826 BCE.

The Indo-Gangetic Divide and The Upper Ganga Valley: The Painted Grey Ware Culture

• PGW Sites: Ghaggar-Hakra Area: Sites like Bhagwanpura and in the Bikaner region did not show evidence of iron artifacts. 
• Ganga–Yamuna Doab: Earliest iron objects are generally associated with PGW.
• Identification and Distribution of PGW: Ahichchhatra: PGW was first identified here in the 1940s, with its significance realized after B. B. Lal's excavations at Hastinapur. 
• Geographic Spread: PGW spread from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau and from Bahawalpur in Pakistan to Kaushambi near Allahabad. 
• Hilly Regions: Found in sites like Kashipur, Thapli, and Purola in Kumaon and Garhwal, with sporadic finds in places like Vaishali in Bihar and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.

Chronology and Regional Variations: 

• Date Range: PGW culture dates from around 1100 to 500/400 BCE, with earlier sites in the north-west compared to the Ganga valley. 
• Regional Differences: Variations in pottery and associated remains across different regions.

Transition to Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): 

• Archaeological Sequence: PGW phase is followed by NBPW phase, starting around 700 BCE at Sringaverapura. 
• Proto-Urban Evidence: Various PGW sites suggest a proto-urban phase preceding the NBPW.

Some Sites of Painted Grey Ware

• Evidence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) material culture has been found in various excavated sites across northern India.

Sites with PGW Evidence

• Uttar Pradesh: Hastinapur, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Kaushambi, Shravasti, Noh, Jodhpura, Atranjikhera
• Punjab: Rupar, Sanghol, Dadheri, Katpalon, Nagar
• Haryana: Daulatpur, Bhagwanpura
• Rajasthan: Jodhpura

Stratigraphic Contexts of PGW

PGW occurs in four different stratigraphic contexts:

• Preceded by Late Harappan: Sites like Rupar, Sanghol, Daulatpur, Alamgirpur, and Hulas show PGW following a late Harappan level with a break in occupation.
• Overlap with Late Harappan: At sites such as Dadheri, Katpalon, Nagar, and Bhagwanpura, PGW overlaps with the late Harappan phase.
• Preceded by OCP: Sites like Hastinapura and Ahichchhatra have PGW following the OCP culture with a break in between.
• Preceded by BRW: At sites such as Atranjikhera, Noh, and Jodhpura, PGW follows the BRW phase with a break in between.

Structural Remains at PGW Levels

• Types of Huts: Structural remains primarily consist of wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
• Bricks: Unbaked bricks and one baked brick were discovered at Hastinapura. Large baked bricks, possibly for ritualistic purposes, were found at Jakhera.
• House Remains: At Bhagwanpura, remains of a large, 13-room house made of baked bricks were found, although it is unclear whether this house dates to the PGW or the preceding late Harappan phase.

Artefacts Found

• Artefacts made of stone, bone, and terracotta have been discovered at PGW sites.
• Chert and jasper weights were found at Hastinapur, indicating specialized craft activities.

Painted Grey Ware Sherds from Hastinapura and Ahichchhatra

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a type of pottery known for its fine, smooth, and evenly coloured surface, typically in shades of silvery grey to battleship grey. This pottery features simple geometric patterns painted in black. The uniformity in colour and texture suggests advanced firing techniques, possibly involving high temperatures or the presence of black ferrous oxide in the clay. PGW pots were crafted on a fast-moving wheel, with an eggshell thickness, and undergo a second turning and smoothening process.

Jakhera: An Overview

• Proto-urban Stage: Jakhera showcases a developed stage of the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, indicating early urban or semi-urban characteristics.
• Water Management: The site features a significant water management system, including a 60 m long water channel and a bund, highlighting advanced water management strategies.
• Remains of Houses and Roads: Evidence of houses, many with multiple hearths, and roads and lanes paved with potsherds suggests organized living spaces and thoroughfares.
• Fire Altar: An uneven mud-brick platform associated with a fire altar indicates ritualistic or communal practices.
• Interesting Discoveries: Artifacts such as a fire pit with a terracotta hooded snake, a crude handmade figurine, and a bowl provide insights into the daily life and practices of the inhabitants.
• Storage Bins: The presence of square and round storage bins points to surplus food production, suggesting a stable and productive community.
• Variety of Artifacts: The site yielded a rich array of artifacts, including gold and copper ornaments, semi-precious stone beads, copper and geometric stone pieces, and ivory objects, indicating craftsmanship and trade.
• Iron Objects: A large number of iron items, particularly agricultural tools like hoes and sickles, reflects the technological and agricultural practices of the time.

Characteristics of Painted Grey Ware (PGW)

• Quality and Appearance: PGW is known for its fine, smooth, and evenly coloured pottery, with shades ranging from silvery grey to battleship grey. The pottery is made from high-quality clay, resulting in a thin fabric.
• Firing Techniques: The uniform colour and texture suggest advanced firing techniques, possibly involving high temperatures or the presence of black ferrous oxide in the clay. The pots were thrown on a fast-moving wheel and smoothed with scrapers, achieving an eggshell thickness.
• Design Patterns: Designs, primarily simple geometric patterns, were painted in black or deep chocolate brown. Common motifs include lines, dots, dashes, circles, and swastikas, while naturalistic designs like floral patterns are less frequent.
• Pot Shapes: PGW pottery includes open-mouthed bowls and dishes, with lotas and miniature pots being less common.
• Usage: PGW pottery appears to have been used by affluent individuals, as it constitutes a small percentage (3–10 per cent) of the total pottery assemblage. It is often found alongside other pottery types like plain grey ware and black slipped ware, which were likely used for everyday cooking and storage.

Painted Grey Ware Pottery

• The sites associated with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) suggest that the people during this period were involved in the cultivation of rice, wheat, and barley, indicating the ability to grow two crops a year. Although there is no direct evidence of irrigation methods, the presence of deep circular pits outside the habitation area at Atranjikhera suggests the existence of kachcha wells, which are still used today for irrigation. 
• Animal husbandry was also practiced, as evidenced by the discovery of bones from cattle, sheep, and pigs, many of which were charred and showed cut marks. Additionally, fish bones and fishhooks found at these sites indicate that fishing was part of their subsistence activities. Horse bones have also been discovered at Hastinapur, suggesting the presence of horses in the region.
• The majority of artifacts recovered from PGW levels appear to be related to warfare or hunting, including items such as arrowheads, spearheads, blades, daggers, and lances. However, there are also tools such as clamps, sockets, rods, rings, pins, chisels, axes, adzes, borers, and scrapers, some of which would have been useful in carpentry. The mature PGW phase at Jakhera has provided significant evidence of iron implements used in agriculture, such as a sickle, ploughshare, and hoe. The variety of iron objects found at PGW levels in Atranjikhera and the agricultural tools discovered at Jakhera indicate that the iron industry was well-established in this region during this period.
• Chemical analyses of iron artifacts from PGW levels at Atranjikhera suggest that these items were made of wrought iron and then carburized, likely by being heated on a bed of charcoal for an extended period at high temperatures. The composition of these objects, along with pieces of iron slag found at the site, matches the iron-rich rocks located between Agra and Gwalior, indicating that this area was a source of iron ore.
• Detailed studies of settlement patterns during the PGW phase reveal variations in site sizes and distributions. For instance, Makkhan Lal’s study of the Kanpur district identified 46 PGW sites, with larger sites typically located along riverbanks. Similarly, Erdosy’s research in the Allahabad district identified a two-tier hierarchy of settlements, with site sizes ranging from 0.42 to 10 hectares. In northern Haryana, PGW sites also exhibited a two-tier hierarchy, while studies in the Bahawalpur area showed a range of site sizes, with most being under 5 hectares.

Evidence from Rajasthan

Noh near Bharatpur

• Period I: Old Ceramic Period (OCP)
• Period II: Black and Red Ware (BRW) with some iron objects
• Period III: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) with iron artefacts such as spearheads, arrowheads, and axes

Eastern Rajasthan:

• Jodhpura: PGW levels revealed a crucible-shaped furnace used for direct ore reduction, indicating advanced metallurgical practices.

Ahar in Southeast Rajasthan:

• Three chalcolithic phases identified with iron artefacts found in Phases Ib and Ic.
• Phase Ib: arrowheads, rings, and slag
• Phase Ic: arrowheads, chisels, nails, pegs, and sockets
• Calibrated dates for iron-bearing levels suggest early iron use in the 2nd millennium BCE, possibly among the earliest in the subcontinent.

The Middle and Lower Ganga Valley

• Early Evidence: Iron technology likely began in the middle Ganga valley during the early to mid-2nd millennium BCE.
• Dadupur: Calibrated radiocarbon dates from BRW levels suggest iron introduction around 1700 BCE.
• Malhar: Iron-bearing Period II dated to the early 2nd millennium BCE.
• Raja Nal ka Tila: Evidence of iron smelting and working dating back to around 1300 BCE.
• Jhusi: Iron dated to approximately 1300 BCE.
• Ganweria: Iron found in association with black-slipped ware.
• Koldihwa: Iron-bearing levels following chalcolithic levels, with evidence of axes, arrowheads, crucibles, and slag.
• Panchoh: Iron nodules discovered with various pottery and microliths.
• Narhan: Iron objects first appearing in Period I and increasing in variety and quantity in Period II, along with a range of other artefacts and evidence of agricultural continuity.

1. Eastern India

(i) Bihar and Bengal

• The earliest iron artefacts in Bihar and Bengal appear in a BRW context (Black and Red Ware) at sites like Chirand, Sonpur, Taradih, Bahiri, Mahisdal, and Bharatpur, dating to the first quarter of the 1st millennium BCE.
• Many sites show cultural continuity from the Chalcolithic BRW phase to the early iron BRW phase.
• At Mahisdal, early iron artefacts were found alongside microliths, while at Barudih, iron was associated with neolithic materials.

(ii) Pandu Rajar Dhibi and Ajay Valley Sites

• Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the Ajay Valley, West Bengal, reported iron artefacts at Chalcolithic levels.
• Bahiri and Mangalkot sites also in the Ajay Valley, showed similar findings.

(iii) Bahiri Site

• Period I at Bahiri (dated from 1112–803 BCE onwards) revealed evidence of:
• Rammed floors of wattle-and-daub houses.
• Bone tools, BRW and associated wares, microliths.
• Iron ore and slag deposits.
• A copper wire piece containing about 10% tin alloying.

(iv) Mangalkot Site

• Period I at Mangalkot (similar date range as Bahiri) included remains of:
• Wattle-and-daub houses with mud floors plastered with cow dung, potsherds, and granular gravels.
• Artefacts such as terracotta figurines, objects (beads, bangles, sling balls, net sinkers), semi-precious stone beads, bone tools, copper bangles and fishhooks.
• Iron artefacts like points, spearheads, and knives ; iron slag and bloom were also found.

2. Central India

• Iron artefacts are found at BRW levels in sites like Nagda (Chambal river) and Eran (Bina river), showing cultural continuity between Chalcolithic and early Iron Age levels.
• Nagda:
• Period I : Malwa culture.
• Period II : Marked by BRW, with iron objects like daggers, axes, spoons, and sickles.
• Pottery included red or cream with geometric designs painted in black.
• Eran:
• Period I : Malwa culture.
• Period IIA : BRW and iron artefacts.

3. Ujjain Site

• Iron artefacts found at BRW levels included spearheads, arrowheads, knives, crowbars, and spades.
• The iron-bearing BRW level at these sites, following Malwa culture levels, is dated to around 1300 BCE, supported by calibrated C-14 dates from Chalcolithic levels at Eran.

Iron Age

Iron Age refers to a period in history characterized by the widespread use of iron tools and weapons, marking a significant advancement in technology and culture.

Madhya Pradesh: In Madhya Pradesh, several megalithic sites have been found that contain iron artifacts. Some of the notable sites include:

• Dhanora
• Sonabhir
• Karhibhandari
• Chirachori
• Majagahan
• Kabrahata
• Sorara
• Sankanpalli
• Timmelwada
• Handaguda
• Nelakanker

The Deccan: In the Deccan region, the earliest iron artifacts are found in Black and Red Ware (BRW) levels, often associated with megalithic structures. 

• The connection between these levels and the earlier chalcolithic Jorwe culture is unclear. Some Jorwe sites appear to have been abandoned for several centuries before being reoccupied around the 6th or 5th century BCE, while others show continuity between the Jorwe phase and the subsequent Iron Age.
• At sites like Prakash, a sequence of cultural layers similar to Nagda is observed, including Malwa culture levels, a gap in occupation, BRW deposits with iron artifacts, and early historical Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) levels. 

The iron artifacts from BRW levels at Prakash included various tools and weapons such as:

• Tanged arrowheads
• Axe heads
• Knife blades
• Sickles
• Chisels
• Tanged objects
• Clamps
• Lance or spear points
• Ferrules
• Nails

Maharashtra: Several megalithic burials and habitation sites in Maharashtra have yielded iron objects, indicating advanced agricultural settlements. Key sites include:

• Takalghat-Khapa
• Naikund
• Mahurjhari
• Bhagimohari
• Borgaon
• Ranjala
• Pimpalsuti
• Junapani

At Naikund, calibrated dates range from 800–420 BCE and 785–410 BCE. Excavations revealed a variety of copper and iron artifacts, including:

• Ladles
• Nails
• Dagger blades
• Arrowheads
• Knives
• Chisels
• Spikes
• Axes
• Double-edged adzes
• Blades and bars/rods
• Fishhooks
• Horse bits
• Bangles
• Tridents
• Spears
• Swords
• Cauldrons

Iron hoes and evidence of local iron smelting were found, including a workshop with a furnace and iron ore sourced from nearby.

Mahurjhari: This site was known for bead manufacturing, and the richness of grave goods in burials may be linked to this activity. Bead production continued from the megalithic period to the early historic phase.

Burials and Warrior Tradition: At Mahurjhari and Naikund, horse remains with iron bits and copper ornaments were found in stone circles. Notable burials included:

• A horse burial with cut marks indicating sacrifice
• An adult male burial with an arrow wound
• A burial with a dagger on an adult male’s chest

These burials suggest a warrior tradition in the region.

South India

In South India, the earliest iron objects are found at the transition between the neolithic and megalithic periods. Megaliths are extensively spread across South India, with notable sites in various states:

• Tamil Nadu: Sites such as Adichanallur, Amritamangalam, Kunnattur, Sanur, Vasudevanallur, Tenkasi, Korkai, Kayal, Kalugumalai, Perumalmalai, Pudukkotai, Tirukkampuliyar, and Odugat-tur.
• Kerala: Important sites include Pulimattu, Tengakkal, Cenkotta, Muthukar, Peria Kanal, Machad, Pazhayannur, and Mangadu. Sites like Machad and Pazhayannur are dated between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, while the megaliths at Mangadu date from around 1000 to 100 BCE.
• Karnataka: Key sites include Brahmagiri, Maski, Hanamsagar, Terdal-Halingali, T. Narsipur, and Hallur, with Hallur dating to around 1000 BCE and Kumarnahalli dating even earlier to 1300–1200 BCE.
• Andhra Pradesh: Sites such as Kadambapur, Nagarjunakonda, Yelleswaram, Gallapalli, Tadapatri, Mirapuram, and Amaravati.
• Sri Lanka: Megaliths associated with Black and Red Ware (BRW) have also been found.

Megalithic Types and Regional Associations: Some megalithic types are linked to specific regions, such as:

• Kodaikals and Topikals: Associated with Kerala and Karnataka.
• Menhirs: Found in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Megalithic Sites and Early Iron Age Communities

Initially, megalithic sites were thought to be settlements of nomadic pastoralists. However, evidence suggests that early Iron Age communities in far South India engaged in a mix of agriculture, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry. There is also proof of advanced craft traditions, indicating a sedentary lifestyle.

Agriculture and Crops: People cultivated cereals, millets, and pulses, with specific findings including:

• Paiyampalli: Charred grains of horse gram, green gram, and possibly ragi.
• Coorg and Khapa (Karnataka): Rice husk.
• Hallur: Charred grains of ragi.
• Kunnatur (Tamil Nadu): Rice grains found in tombs.

Tools and Grinding Stones: Tools like pestles and grinding stones were found at various megalithic sites, indicating agricultural activities. For example, a granite grinding stone was discovered in a cist at Machad in Kerala.

Location of Megalithic Sites: Research by K. Rajan in 2003 suggests that the proximity of megalithic sites in the Pudukottai region of Tamil Nadu to irrigation tanks (mostly rain-fed, some fed by streams) was significant, indicating a link between megalithic communities and water resources.

• Some hints about how people lived in the past come from old paintings and figurines. For example, places like Marayur and Attala in Kerala show pictures of hunting. In Karnataka, at Hire Benkal, there are images of hunting different animals like peahens, peacocks, stags, and antelopes, as well as people dancing. The discovery of animal bones, both from wild and domesticated species, suggests that people were involved in hunting and domestication. 
• Animals like cows, sheep, dogs, and horses were domesticated, with cattle being the most important. This shows a continuation of subsistence practices from earlier periods. Fishhooks have also been found in some megalithic graves in Tamil Nadu, indicating fishing activities.

Evidence of Specialized Crafts and Pottery

• The megalithic sites in South India show evidence of advanced traditions in specialized crafts. Various types of pottery have been discovered, including Black and Red Ware (BRW).
• Some pots with lids adorned with decorative finials resembling birds or animals seem to be ceremonial in nature.
• There are indications of bead-making activities, with grave goods including etched carnelian beads and beads made from different materials.
• Additionally, copper and bronze artifacts such as utensils, bowls, and bangles have been found, along with a few silver and gold ornaments.

The Mystery of the Megalithic Anthropomorphs

• Several years ago, a large anthropomorphic figure was found at Mottur in Chengam taluka, Tamil Nadu. This figure was part of a stone arrangement with three concentric circles, where the innermost circle contained the figure facing south.
• The anthropomorph, measuring 3.25 meters in width and height, had curved arms and a semi-circular projection above the shoulder representing the neck and head. Instead of legs, it had a pedestal, giving the appearance of a seated figure.
• Another similar figure was discovered earlier at Udayarnattam in Villupuram taluk, forming part of a stone circle marking a cist burial. This figure, about 3 meters tall, had a small triangular projection above the shoulder resembling a neck.
• Local tradition offers a fascinating explanation for these headless figures. It narrates a story of the Valiyars, a group of pygmies, who, anticipating a ‘rain fire,’ decided to flee southward. They requested their god to accompany them, but when he refused, they cut off his head and took it with them, leaving the headless figure behind.

Anthropomorphic Figures

Anthropomorphic figures have been discovered at 15 megalithic sites, ranging from the central Godavari valley to the hills of Tamil Nadu. Notable locations include:

• Kaperlaguru on the Godavari
• Amabala Vayal in Kerala
• Midimalla near Chittoor
• Kumati in Bellary district

At Eguvakantala Cheruvu in Chittoor district, three anthropomorphic figures were found in close association. The figure on the east had a distinctive round porthole. In northern Andhra Pradesh, particularly on the south bank of the Godavari at sites like Tottigutta and Dongatogu, anthropomorphs with heads but no arms have been reported.

The exact significance of these giant anthropomorphs remains unclear. They are typically found in association with chamber tombs and dolmens, suggesting a possible connection to ancestor worship.

Iron Objects

• Iron objects are more common than those made from other metals at megalithic sites.
• The wide range of iron artefacts found—such as utensils, weapons (like arrowheads, spearheads, swords, and knives), carpentry tools (including axes, chisels, and adzes), and agricultural implements (like sickles, hoes, and coulters)—shows that iron was widely used in daily life.
• Some more intricate metal objects found in burials may have been used for ritual purposes.

Different metallurgical techniques were used to make metal artefacts. Some copper and bronze items were clearly cast in moulds, while others were shaped by hammering.

• Some communities had the knowledge to create metal alloys.
• For example, iron artefacts from Pazhayannur and Machad were found to be relatively pure, with only trace amounts of other elements. Most metal objects from these sites appeared to be made by forging thin strips of metal and joining them by beating.
• One object, a hook, was made by moulding.

There is evidence of local iron smelting in places like Paiyampalli in Karnataka.

Some megalithic sites were likely centres of craft production linked to trade networks, as indicated by their locations on early historical trade routes. The presence of non-local items made from precious metals and semi-precious stones also suggests inter-regional trade.

Megalithic Cist, Brahmagiri

• Recent archaeological work at Kudatini in the Bellary district has uncovered a remarkably well-preserved late Neolithic to early Iron Age sarcophagus burial. This particular burial involved a secondary interment. Inside the sarcophagus and the accompanying pots were the remains of a single child, estimated to have died at the age of 6 or 7.
• Excavations at the megalithic site of Kodumanal, dated between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE in Erode district, Tamil Nadu, revealed several intriguing features. One cist contained the remains of a deer buried in an urn, along with etched carnelian beads, a sword, and axes. It appears that in cist burials, the passage served to create sufficient space for performing rituals against the port hole. Additionally, graffiti marks in archaic Tamil-Brahmi on the grave goods were a significant discovery at Kodumanal.
• Some megalithic graves indicate continued use of the same burial area over many centuries. However, it seems these graves were not used more than once or twice in a generation, possibly representing a small elite group within a ranked society. In comparison to earlier Neolithic-Chalcolithic burials, there are fewer megalithic graves containing burials of children and young adults, with a notably high percentage of adult male burials.
• Rock paintings found at megalithic sites depict scenes of fighting, cattle raids, and hunting. For instance, at the megalithic habitation site of Mallapadi in Tiruppattur Taluk, Tamil Nadu, rock shelters featured paintings made with white kaolin. One scene portrayed two horse riders engaged in combat, while another depicted a human figure with raised arms, possibly holding a stick or weapon. At Paiyampalli, the paintings included various motifs such as fighting scenes, dancing figures, horse raiders, flora, birds, and sun symbols. These paintings provide valuable insights into the lives and experiences of megalithic communities.
• The construction of megaliths likely involved collective efforts from the community. These monuments probably served as important sites for rituals that were integral to the social and cultural fabric of the people. Ethnographic studies of contemporary megalithic communities suggest that the building of such monuments may have been associated with feasting, gift exchange, and the establishment of alliances.

Photographs of Megaliths from Various Sites

The Impact of Iron Technology

• Iron technology underwent a gradual evolution from its early inception to its widespread impact. Initially, small quantities of iron were found at a few sites in the early 2nd millennium BCE. 
• However, iron became more prevalent around 1000–800 BCE. By 800–500 BCE, iron use was common across virtually all regions of the Indian subcontinent, marking the onset of the Iron Age in most areas, including the Ganga valley. Nevertheless, some regions experienced this transition much later.

The Debate on Iron Technology’s Impact

• The impact of iron technology on ancient India has been a subject of debate for decades. This debate involves understanding the role of technology in history and evaluating the evidence of iron usage in different regions and periods.
• The focus has been particularly on the Ganga valley during the 1st millennium BCE.

Discredited Hypotheses

• D. D. Kosambi proposed that the Indo-Aryans moved eastward to access iron ores in south Bihar, which allegedly contributed to the political dominance of the state of Magadha in early historical times.
• This idea is now considered invalid because iron ores are widely distributed throughout the subcontinent.
• Recent analyses of early iron artifacts suggest that the ores likely came from the hills between Agra and Gwalior, not Bihar.

R. S. Sharma's Hypothesis

• R. S. Sharma emphasized the importance of iron axes and ploughs in the Ganga valley.
• He argued that these tools facilitated forest clearing and agricultural expansion, leading to an agricultural surplus and a second phase of urbanization.
• Sharma also suggested that the rise of religions like Buddhism was a response to the socio-economic changes brought about by iron technology.

Critiques of Sharma’s Hypothesis

• Critics like A. Ghosh and Niharranjan Ray questioned Sharma ’s views, suggesting that forest clearing could have been achieved through burning rather than iron axes.
• They argued that archaeological evidence did not support Sharma ’s claims and that the impact of iron technology was gradual, becoming evident during the mid-NBPW phase when urbanization was already in progress.
• They also highlighted the significance of socio-political factors in the historical changes of the Ganga valley in the 1st millennium BCE.

Makkhan Lal's Perspective

• Makkhan Lal challenged the notion of large-scale forest clearance using iron axes and the idea that iron ploughs were necessary for agricultural surplus and urbanization.
• He argued that there was not a significant increase in iron usage from PGW to NBPW levels and that iron technology was not crucial for agricultural surplus or urban development.
• He also pointed out that the iron ores in Bihar were not exploited during this period.

Forest and Agriculture in the Ganga Valley

• The Ganga plains were actually covered in thick forests until the 16th and 17th centuries CE, much later than previously thought. While technology, like the introduction of iron, played a crucial role in history, it wasn't the only factor. Archaeological evidence shows that iron technology began in parts of the Ganga valley around the 2nd millennium BCE, with the earliest iron objects found in BRW or PGW contexts. Over time, the use of iron increased, especially during the NBPW phase.
• Agriculture did expand and involve some land clearing, but large areas remained forested for a long time. It wasn't until the colonial period, with the expansion of railways, growing population, and commercialization of agriculture, that massive deforestation occurred in the Ganga valley and across the subcontinent. 
• Detailed studies of archaeological data from different regions show that the relationship between technological change and history is complex. For example, in the far south, the early use of iron did not lead to immediate socioeconomic changes. Iron ploughshares were mainly used in wetland areas, and the socio-political conditions of war and plunder hindered agrarian growth in Tamilakam.
• The early belief that technology alone drove these changes has been revised.

Challenges in Relating Literary and Archaeological Evidence

• The debate surrounding the correlation of literature and archaeology from around 2000 to 500 BCE primarily focuses on the Aryan issue and the connection between Vedic and Harappan cultures. In contrast, the potential links between Sangam literature and the later phase of South India's megalithic culture are less contentious and will be explored in a subsequent chapter.
• Numerous attempts have been made to connect Vedic literature with Harappan and post-Harappan archaeological cultures in northern India. However, the relationship between the Indo-Aryans, known through their texts, and the Harappan civilization, understood through archaeological evidence, remains controversial. Scholars hold differing views on whether the Harappan civilization was destroyed by Vedic Aryans, whether there was an overlap between the mature/late Harappan phase and Indo-Aryan immigration, or whether the Harappan civilization represents the culture of Vedic Aryans.
• The challenges in correlating literary and archaeological evidence stem from their fundamentally different nature, ambiguity, and dating issues. The Harappan language remains unknown, and without deciphered written evidence, linking Harappan sites with linguistic, ethnic, or cultural groups from texts is difficult.
• Kenneth Kennedy's analysis of the skeletal record indicates that discontinuities in physical types in the north-west occurred between 6000 and 4500 BCE, with a second phase after 800 BCE. There is no evidence of demographic disruption in the north-west during or after the decline of the Harappan civilization, suggesting that no invasions or large-scale migrations took place during the period when Indo-Aryans are believed to have entered India. Small-scale inflows, however, remain a possibility.
• Various attempts have been made to identify the Indo-Aryans in archaeology. Some archaeologists have linked the Cemetery-H culture with the Indo-Aryans, while others have identified foreign elements in the post-urban phase at Chanhudaro. Changes in funerary practices, fire worship, and horse use at Gandhara Grave culture sites have also been associated with the Indo-Aryans. 
• The copper hoards have been connected with early Indo-Aryans, Harappan refugees, or pre-Aryan inhabitants of the doab. The PGW culture has been suggested to correlate with later Vedic Aryans based on chronological and geographical overlap, as well as cultural similarities. The PGW culture has also been linked to events in the Mahabharata. Chalcolithic cultures in Rajasthan, central India, and the Deccan have been variously identified with pre-Aryans, Aryans, or non-Vedic immigrants. Among these correlations, many scholars accept the connection between later Vedic culture and PGW.

Conclusions

• The period between 2000 and 500 BCE in the Indian subcontinent was marked by a rich and diverse cultural landscape, as revealed by literature and archaeology. This era saw many regions transitioning from the chalcolithic (copper-stone) phase to the iron age.
• Historians have utilized Vedic texts to identify broad patterns of historical change, particularly in the north-west and upper Ganga valley, while archaeology provides insights into the everyday life and settlement patterns of people across the subcontinent.
• Evidence from this period indicates the presence of numerous settlements, many of which were based on a stable agricultural foundation capable of supporting two crops a year, along with practices of animal domestication and hunting.
• Some areas exhibited a hierarchical settlement structure, with a few large, sometimes fortified, settlements supporting substantial populations.
• Specialized crafts and iron metallurgy became prominent in most regions, and there is evidence of both inter-regional and long-distance trade in raw materials and finished goods, suggesting increasing socio-economic complexity.
• Archaeological findings from sites like Inamgaon in the Deccan indicate a chiefdom level of society, while later Vedic texts reflect the transition from tribal to territorial state organization in the Ganga valley. By the end of this period, northern India was on the brink of urbanization, setting the stage for future developments.