Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324–187 BCE - 3 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Ashoka and Buddhism

Ashoka’s relationship with Buddhism is well-documented in both Buddhist texts and his own inscriptions. He is regarded by Buddhist tradition as an ideal king and a devoted lay follower (upasaka) of the Buddha. Ashoka had a strong bond with the Buddhist monastic community (sangha) and with prominent monks of his time, such as Upagupta.

• His reputation as a generous patron of the sangha is evident in various legends. He is credited with redistributing the Buddha’s relics and placing them in stupas across all significant towns. Some accounts suggest he built as many as 84,000 stupas and monasteries (viharas).
• Ashoka is also believed to have undertaken pilgrimages to all the major sites associated with the Buddha’s life, marking these places for the benefit of future pilgrims. He actively promoted the spread of the Buddha’s teachings far and wide.
• Ashoka’s inscriptions reflect his deep faith in the Buddha’s teachings. In Minor Rock Edict 1, he mentions that he had been a lay follower for just over two and a half years, initially struggling to promote dhamma but later growing closer to the sangha and working diligently.
• Minor Rock Edict 3, found only at Bairat (Bhabru), shows Ashoka greeting the sangha, expressing his strong faith in the Buddha, dhamma, and sangha, and recommending six Buddhist texts for regular listening and reflection.
• His close relationship with the sangha is further highlighted in the ‘schism edict,’ where he cautions against causing divisions within the order.

Minor Rock Edict 1 (Rupnath Version)

Devanampiya's Commitment

• Devanampiya, the king, speaks about his journey of becoming a Sakya, a lay follower of the Buddha, a little over two and a half years ago.
• Initially, he was not very enthusiastic, but for more than a year now, he has been close to the sangha (Buddhist community) and very zealous.
• Through his efforts, he has brought the gods to mingle with the people of Jambudvipa, showing the impact of his dedication.

Zeal and Attainment of Heaven

• Devanampiya emphasizes that achieving this result is not limited to high-ranking individuals; even a poor person can attain heaven with zeal.
• The proclamation aims to encourage both the rich and poor to be zealous, even those outside his dominions, and to ensure this zeal lasts for a long time.

Instruction to Officers

• Devanampiya instructs his officers to engrave this message on stone whenever possible, especially on stone pillars in his dominions.
• Officers are to be dispatched to spread this message far and wide.

Context of the Proclamation

• The proclamation is made during the king's tour, specifically after spending 256 nights on tour.
• Different versions of the inscription refer to the king as a lay follower of the Buddha in various ways, such as 'Sakya', 'Buddha-Sakya', and 'upasaka'.

Interpretation of Terms

• The term 'sangham upete' is understood not as Ashoka visiting the sangha but as drawing closer to the order.
• The Ahraura version of the edict includes a phrase suggesting Ashoka spent 256 nights on tour after enshrining Buddha's relics, possibly on a platform (stupa).

Ashoka's Transformation

• Buddhist texts depict Ashoka negatively until he embraces the Buddha's dhamma, portraying his 'conversion' as a sudden change.
• The term 'conversion' is used cautiously, as fixed religious identities were not present at the time.
• The Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa suggest Ashoka turned to the Buddha's dhamma influenced by his nephew Nigrodha, who became a monk at a young age.

Origin of Ashoka’s Faith

• The Ashokavadana asserts that Ashoka became a follower of Buddhism after a conversation with a monk named Upagupta who preached the doctrine to him. However, the Divyavadana, supported by Xuanzang, credits Ashoka’s attraction to Buddhism to Samudra, a merchant-turned-monk who remained unscathed by torture in Ashoka’s prison. 
• The Ashokavadana confuses these accounts, depicting Samudra as a 12-year-old boy influencing Ashoka towards Buddhism. Ashoka’s own inscriptions do not reference such events.
• The 13th major rock edict reflects on the Kalinga war, which the Buddhist texts omit, suggesting it was pivotal in Ashoka’s shift towards pacifism and non-military success. Minor rock edict 1 indicates Ashoka’s gradual, not abrupt, embrace of Buddhism, emphasizing the importance of his personal admission over Buddhist narratives. 

Evidence of Ashoka’s Buddhist Faith 

• Further proof of Ashoka’s genuine faith in Buddhism is found in the Rummindei and Nigali Sagar inscriptions. The Rummindei inscription reveals that 20 years after his consecration, Ashoka visited and worshipped at Lumbini, erecting a stone wall and pillar to commemorate his visit and offering tax concessions to local villagers. 
• The Nigali Sagar inscription indicates that 14 years after his consecration, Ashoka doubled the size of the stupa housing the relics of Buddha Konagamana (a legendary Buddha), and 20 years post-consecration, he personally visited the site and erected a stone pillar there. 

The Third Buddhist Council 

The Pali chronicles claim that Ashoka organized a significant Buddhist council at Pataliputra, led by Moggaliputta Tissa, to eliminate certain unacceptable practices within the sangha. This council is considered the third, following the first at Rajagriha after the Buddha’s death and the second at Vaishali a century later. However, Ashoka’s inscriptions do not record such an event. 

Several explanations arise: 

• No council occurred during Ashoka’s reign, making the Pali chronicles inaccurate. 
• A minor local council directed by Moggaliputta Tissa happened, with little involvement from Ashoka. 
• Two distinct councils existed, later conflated by Buddhist tradition into one. 
• The ‘schism edict’ of Ashoka may hint at some council activity, with Heinz Bechert suggesting Ashoka intervened in sangha affairs to expel monks and nuns breaching monastic rules, rather than addressing a doctrinal split. 

According to the Mahavamsa, Emperor Ashoka sent out several Buddhist missions after the third Buddhist council. The missionaries and their destinations included:

• Majjhima, Kassapagota, Dhundibissara, Sahadeva, and Mulakadeva were sent to the Himalayan region.
• Maharakkhita was sent to Yona (in the northwest).
• Majjhantika was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara.
• Mahadeva to Mahishamandala (in central India).
• Yona Dhammarikhita to Aparantaka in western Malwa.
• Rakkhita to Vanavasi.
• Mahadharm-marakkhita to Maharrattha (in the western Deccan).
• Sona and Uttara to Suvarnabhumi (possibly in Myanmar or Southeast Asia).
• Mahinda to Lanka (Sri Lanka).

Ashoka's Dhamma

Ashoka's inscriptions primarily focus on dhamma, which is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word dharma. These inscriptions reflect his deep commitment to explaining and propagating dhamma throughout his empire, starting 12 years after his abhisheka (consecration). While the inscriptions detail what dhamma entailed, historians debate its nature and Ashoka's personal faith in the Buddha's teachings.

• A key aspect of Ashoka's dhamma is ahimsa, or non-injury. Rock edict 1 highlights bans on animal sacrifices and certain festive gatherings involving animal killings, as well as a reduction in animal killings for food in royal kitchens. Pillar edict 5 refers to more comprehensive prohibitions issued by Ashoka 26 years after his consecration, though implementing such bans across the vast Maurya empire would have been challenging.
• Good conduct and social responsibilities within dhamma were linked to specific relationships. Rock edict 9 criticizes certain ceremonies, particularly those performed by women on occasions like illness, marriage, birth, and journeys, as yielding uncertain results. 
• In contrast, Ashoka promotes the ceremony of dhamma, which involves proper treatment of slaves and servants, respect for elders, restraint in dealings with all living beings, and generosity towards shramanas and Brahmanas. Rock edict 11 emphasizes the gift of dhamma as the best of all gifts, encompassing proper treatment of slaves and servants, obedience to parents, generosity towards friends, acquaintances, relatives, Brahmanas, and shramanas, and abstaining from killing living beings. Pillar edict 2 defines dhamma as involving minimal sin, numerous virtuous deeds, compassion, generosity, truthfulness, and purity.

The 5th Pillar Edict (Delhi–Topra Pillar)

Inviolable Animals: Ashoka declared certain animals as inviolable, meaning they were to be protected and not harmed. This list included various birds like parrots, mynahs, and doves, mammals like bulls, porcupines, and squirrels, reptiles like terrapins and iguanas, and other creatures such as bats, queen ants, and boneless fish. 

• Prohibitions: Several activities were prohibited, including: 
• Castrating cocks. 
• Burning husk containing living animals. 
• Uselessly burning forests or forests with the intention of destroying living beings. 
• Feeding living animals to other living animals. 
• Selling fish on specific days and killing other animals in the elephant park and fishermen’s preserves during the same period. 
• Specific Days of Prohibition: Certain days were specified for prohibitions on castrating animals, branding horses and bullocks, and other activities. These included: 
• Eighth tithi of every fortnight. 
• Fourteenth and fifteenth days of the lunar month. 
• Tishya and Punarvasu. 
• Three Chaturmasis and festival days. 
• Release of Prisoners: Ashoka mentioned that he had ordered the release of prisoners twenty-five times during the twenty-six years of his reign before the edict was issued.
• Mutual Respect and Concord: Another aspect of Ashoka's dhamma was to promote mutual respect and harmony among people of different sects or religious communities. Dhamma was not about promoting a particular sect, whether Buddhist or otherwise. 
• Religious Toleration: This aspect of dhamma is often misunderstood as 'religious toleration.' Rock Edict 12 shows that Ashoka expected people to restrain from criticizing other sects and praising their own. He urged people to honor and try to understand the dhamma of others, promoting the essentials of different dhammas through mutual respect.

Ashoka's Vision of Dhamma

Ashoka's inscriptions reveal his deep commitment to the dhamma, or moral duty, of a king. In Rock Edict 6, he outlines his ideals and goals: to promote the welfare of all his people, repay his debt to all beings, and ensure their happiness in this life and the next. Rock Edict 2 lists activities he considered part of his dhamma, including:

• Providing medical treatment
• Planting beneficial medicinal herbs, roots, and fruits
• Digging wells

What sets Ashoka apart is his inclusivity; these efforts were for the benefit of both people and animals. Similar initiatives are mentioned in Pillar Edict 7, not only in his kingdom but also in the realms of neighboring rulers like Antiochus in the northwest and the Cholas and Pandyas in the south.

The King as Teacher of Dhamma

• The Ashokan edicts portray the king as a model of dhamma in both thought and action. Ashoka presents himself as the foremost proclaimer and teacher of dhamma, emphasizing this role above all others, as seen in Rock Edict 4. 
• While the idea of a king maintaining dharma, particularly varnashrama dharma, is common in Indian tradition, Ashoka's vision of the king as an active teacher and propagator of dhamma is unique and significant.

Renunciation of Warfare

• A remarkable aspect of Ashoka's concept of dhamma was his renunciation of warfare and redefinition of righteous conquest. 
• Unlike the Arthashastra's dharma-vijaya, Ashoka's dhamma-vijaya aligns more with the Buddhist ideal of the chakkavatti dhammiko dhammaraja —a righteous universal ruler who establishes control through righteousness, not violence. This king spreads dhamma, not territorial conquest.

Dhamma-Vijaya and Dhamma Missionaries

• Ashoka advanced the Buddhist idea of dhamma-vijaya by emphasizing dhamma missionaries over military force. This shift highlights his commitment to spreading dhamma peacefully and exemplifies his unique interpretation of the king's role in promoting moral duty.
• In the 13th major rock edict, Ashoka reflects on his experience in the war against Kalinga, expressing deep remorse for the suffering it caused. He critiques war, emphasizing that it leads to suffering for everyone involved. Instead, he advocates for dhamma-vijaya (conquest through dharma) as the superior form of victory.
• Dhamma-vijaya is described as having been achieved by Ashoka over various groups, including the Yavanas, Kambojas, Bhojas, and others within the subcontinent. He also claims to have attained this kind of victory in the realms of foreign rulers such as Antiochus II, Ptolemy II, and others in regions like Macedonia and North Africa.
• The edict concludes with Ashoka urging his successors to refrain from military conquests and to treat conquered peoples with kindness if warfare is unavoidable. However, it also contains a warning to the forest people, reflecting a more stern stance. This sentiment is echoed in separate rock edicts 2 at Dhauli and Jaugada.

The 13th Rock Edict (Shahbazgarhi Version)

The 13th Rock Edict reflects King Ashoka's remorse and reflection after his conquest of Kalinga, emphasizing the horrors of war and the importance of dhamma (moral law).

• Details of the Edict: Eight years after his coronation, Ashoka conquered Kalinga. The aftermath was devastating:
• Deportation: 150,000 people were deported.
• Death: 100,000 were killed, with many more dying from the consequences of war.
• Ashoka's Transformation: After the conquest, Ashoka devoted himself to dhamma, realizing the pain caused by the slaughter, death, and deportation of people during the conquest of Kalinga.
• Dhamma vs. Conquest: Ashoka believed that the suffering of those who practice devotion and respect, such as Brahmanas, shramanas, and householders, is even more deplorable. The misfortune of their loved ones also causes them suffering.
• Value of Life: Ashoka felt that even a small fraction of those killed or deported was regrettable. He emphasized forgiveness, even towards wrongdoers, and sought to pacify and conciliate forest inhabitants under his rule.
• Ideal of Dhamma: Ashoka aimed for self-control and non-violence towards all beings. He considered the conquest of dhamma, or moral victory, as the greatest conquest.
• Repentance and Dhamma: Ashoka expressed deep remorse for the pain caused during the conquest and committed himself to the principles of dhamma, which include non-violence and moral behavior.

Inscription Practices and Oral Propagation:

• Pillar edict 6 indicates the start of inscribing dhamma edicts on stone 13 years after Ashoka’s abhisheka (coronation).
• Given the limited literacy at the time, Ashoka organized for his message to be spread orally.
• The inscriptions represent Ashoka 'speaking' to his subjects, often beginning with "Thus speaks Devanampiya Piyadasi."

Reading and Listening Practices:

• The separate rock edicts imply that these messages were read out loud to people.
• Public readings likely occurred on auspicious days, such as full moons in specific months and on the Tishya constellation day.

Role of Officials:

• Officials like kumaras, yutas, rajukas, mahamatas, anta-mahamatas, pulisani, and parishad members helped spread Ashoka’s dhamma message orally.
• Rock edict 3 mentions rajukas and pradeshikas were to inspect tours every five years as part of their duties and for preaching dhamma.
• Ashoka established a special group of dhamma mahamatas 13 years after his coronation. Rock edict 5 instructs them to promote dhamma within the kingdom and to border regions inhabited by people like the Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Rishtikas, and Pitinikas. Their mission involved interacting with all sects and enhancing the welfare and happiness of various groups, including servants, masters, traders, farmers, Brahmanas, prisoners, the elderly, the needy, and the king’s relatives .
• However, the primary promoter of the dhamma message was Ashoka himself. In major rock edict 8, he observed that previous kings indulged in pleasure tours filled with hunts and leisure activities. A decade after his coronation, he embarked on a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya. From that point onward, royal pleasure tours (vihara-yatas ) were substituted with dhamma tours (dhamma-yatas ) . These tours involved visiting Brahmanas and shramanas to offer gifts, distributing gold to the elderly, engaging with rural communities to teach and discuss dhamma. Ashoka emphasized that he found greater joy in these dhamma tours than in any other activity.
• In Ashoka’s Greek inscriptions, dhamma is translated as eusebeia (piety) , while Aramaic inscriptions use qsyt (truth) and data (law) . These inscriptions, unlike literal translations of Ashokan edicts, show both similarities and differences in the concept of dhamma. For instance, the Kandahar Greek inscription highlights subjects’ devotion to the king’s welfare as part of dhamma, while the Greek and Aramaic inscriptions do not mention the pursuit of heaven as a consequence of following dhamma, a common theme in Prakrit inscriptions.
• As Ashoka’s reign continued, his focus on propagating dhamma intensified. Some Greek and Aramaic inscriptions, along with later pillar edicts, reflect his increasingly grandiose perception of the changes he had instigated in his subjects’ behavior and lives. Historians have varying interpretations of the dhamma expressed in Ashoka’s inscriptions. 

The Vaishali Pillar

• According to historian Romila Thapar, the political rationale behind Ashoka's propagation of dhamma is more significant than its Buddhist elements. She argues that dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka to consolidate his empire, rather than a reflection of his personal beliefs.
• Thapar suggests that in the early years of his reign, Ashoka lacked support and saw the practical advantages of adopting and propagating dhamma, which was an ethical concept focusing on the relationship between the individual and society. However, she also notes that dhamma ultimately failed as a unifying strategy.

Ashoka’s Dhamma and Its Buddhist Influence

To understand Ashoka’s dhamma, we need to look beyond just the texts. The Buddhist influence in Ashoka’s dhamma is also evident in the sculptures associated with his pillars.

Symbolic Motifs and Buddhist Significance

• The sculptural motifs on Ashoka’s pillars have a broad symbolic appeal but hold special Buddhist significance.
• For instance, the Girnar rock features a fragmentary inscription about a white elephant bringing happiness to the world, while the Kalsi rock has a carving of an elephant with the inscription gajatame, meaning “the best elephant.”
• The elephant motif appears at Dhauli as well, along with the word seto, meaning “the white one.”
• These depictions can be interpreted as Buddhist symbols, representing the Buddha-to-be, who is believed to have entered his mother’s womb in the form of a white elephant.

Connection Between Ashoka’s Dhamma and Buddhism

• The presence of these Buddhist symbols on rocks bearing dhamma edicts suggests a connection between Ashoka’s dhamma and the Buddhist dhamma.
• Additionally, the discovery of Buddhist remains near many Ashokan pillars indicates that these pillars may have marked sites of stupas or monasteries established by Ashoka, further linking his dhamma to Buddhism.

Ashoka’s Innovation and Emphasis on Mutual Respect

• While Ashoka’s dhamma was inspired by the Buddhist upasaka dhamma, it was not identical. Ashoka was an innovator who emphasized mutual respect and concord among people of different sects and beliefs, a feature not highlighted in any religious tradition of his time.
• His dhamma was a set of teachings that transcended narrow sectarian beliefs. This is evident from the role of dhamma mahamatas, who were to engage with all sects, and Ashoka’s own statements honoring all sects and promoting respect for one another’s dhamma.
• Inscriptions in the Barabar hills also indicate Ashoka’s patronage of ascetics from the Ajivika sect, further illustrating his inclusive approach.
• Ashoka’s concept of dhamma-vijaya took the Buddhist ideal a step further, reflecting his practical governance as a real king dealing with real issues, unlike the mythical king Sudassana.

Sculpture and Architecture

The findings at Dholavira suggest that the Indian subcontinent's tradition of monumental stone sculpture and architecture dates back to the Harappan civilization. 

• However, there was a significant hiatus after the decline of this civilization, and it wasn't until the Maurya period that such monumental art and architecture reemerged. This resurgence can be attributed to increased political complexity, the rise of empires, the concentration of wealth among urban elites, and the greater institutionalization of religious practices.
• During the Maurya period, art was closely tied to political ideology and religious practices, rather than being created for its own sake, as is often the case today. This connection is evident in both the form and the patronage of artistic works. Many surviving examples of art and architecture from this period were commissioned by Maurya kings, particularly Ashoka, and are considered "court art." However, there were also instances of "popular art," such as stone sculptures, terracotta figurines, ring stones, and disc stones, which reflected the lives and activities of ordinary people.
• Several questions arise regarding the artistic practices of the Maurya period: How should we understand the origins of stone sculpture and architecture during this time? Did Western, particularly Persian, influences play a significant role? And why was Maurya court art short-lived and lacking in legacy? Recent studies, such as those by S. Settar in 2003, have highlighted insights about the artisans who inscribed the Ashokan edicts, including one artisan named Chapada, who left his signature on rocks at various locations.

Sarnath Capital

• The remains of a wooden fortification wall were discovered in Patna through various explorations and excavations over the years. D. B. Spooner conducted systematic excavations at Bulandibagh between 1915 and 1917, revealing two parallel walls of wooden uprights with a gap in between. 
• The uprights were set deep into the ground and supported by a bed of kankar, with their height above ground being significant. The floor was made of timber planks fitted into sockets in the uprights. Further excavations by Manoranjan Ghosh in 1926-27 extended the discovery of the wall and its features.
• The gap between the parallel walls could have been a tunnel or filled with mud, and the wall was originally covered with mud and topped with a wooden roof. A possible gateway and a large wooden drain crossing the wall were also found, showcasing the construction techniques used, including iron nails for joining beams and making joints watertight. Similar wooden fortification wall remains were found at other sites like Gasain Khanda, Rampur, and Bahadurpur, along with large drain discoveries.

The Bulandibagh Chariot Wheel

• The Bulandibagh was a large wooden chariot wheel with spokes, reinforced by a strong iron rim. During Waddell’s excavations from 1892 to 1899 at various sites, he discovered what is believed to be the foundation of a wooden jetty. 
• This jetty likely extended into the old course of the Son River at a location known as Rampur.

Discovery of Pillars and Structures

• In 1903, Waddell uncovered a fragment of a pillar at Kumrahar in Patna. Later, in 1912-13, D. B. Spooner found 72 pillars arranged in a neat chessboard pattern. Additional pillars were discovered by A. S. Altekar and V. K. Misra, with Altekar and Misra also excavating several brick structures in the area in 1959. However, all these structures dated to the post-Maurya period.
• The pillars, made of buff-coloured Chunar sandstone, had a smooth and polished surface. Although no complete pillar was found, it is estimated that the pillars had slightly tapering shafts measuring about 9.91 meters in length. The diameter of their circular cross-section likely ranged from 75 cm near the base to 55 cm near the top.

Differences from Ashokan Pillars

• While the pillars were made of the same stone as the freestanding Ashokan pillars, they were thinner and shorter. Each pillar featured a hole on top, intended for metal dowels that connected the shaft to a capital, which in turn supported the roof. 
• Some pillars bore masons’ marks on their base, including the crescent-on-hill symbol found on many punch-marked coins from that era.

Construction and Fire Damage

• The pillars were originally fixed on square wooden bases, which were laid on a compact layer of clay. The discovery of a large amount of ash and burnt wood fragments indicated that the floor and roof were made of wood and that the structure had experienced a fire. 
• It is believed that the wooden roof was covered with brick and lime plaster, as pieces of these materials were found at the site.

Structure Layout and Function

• There were no traces of walls, suggesting that the hall was open on all sides. Approximately 5 meters to the southeast of the hall, seven wooden platforms made of sal wood were excavated. These platforms may have supported a wooden staircase leading up to the pillared hall. There is also a suggestion that a canal might have connected this location to the Son River.
• Spooner noted a resemblance between the pillared hall at Kumrahar and Darius’ Hall of Public Audience at Persepolis in Iran. However, the Maurya structure is less elaborate than the Persian palaces. The exact purpose of the 80-pillared hall remains uncertain.

Ashokan Pillars and Their Significance

• The impressive free-standing pillars from the time of Ashoka may represent the axis mundi, symbolizing the connection between heaven and earth. Some pillars feature a set of six or seven edicts, while others have different inscriptions, such as commemorative inscriptions or the schism edict. 
• There are also pillars without inscriptions, such as the ones with bull or lion capitals. It is possible that some of Ashoka’s edicts were carved on pre-existing pillars, and many fragments found in various parts of the country may have once belonged to Ashokan pillars.

Ancient and Modern Quarries at Chunar

• In 1990, a group of archaeologists from Banaras Hindu University, led by P. C. Pant and Vidula Jayaswal, were investigating megalithic structures near Baragaon, located on the border of Mirzapur and Varanasi districts in eastern Uttar Pradesh. During their exploration, they discovered signs of ancient stone quarries in the nearby Chunar hills, including large cylindrical blocks of stone.
• Jayaswal later conducted a thorough study on stone quarrying and usage in the Chunar and Sarnath-Varanasi regions, testing various hypotheses. Her analysis of the stone material and inscriptions found in the area suggested that the hillsides of Chunar had been quarried for sandstone from the 3rd century BCE through the medieval period. Her research uncovered several intriguing and significant findings:

Ancient Quarrying Sites

• The low-lying hill near Baragaon village was identified as the primary ancient quarrying site.
• Over 450 ancient quarry sites were discovered within an area of approximately 15 square kilometers.
• Evidence included marks of stone block extraction, chiselling debris, cylindrical blocks in various stages of preparation, and count-marks indicating the number of finished blocks.
• Inscriptions found at the sites, written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi from Maurya or early post-Maurya times to Nagari script of the 13th/14th century, helped establish the timeline of quarrying activities.

Stone Processing and Transportation

• Quarried stone blocks were shaped into cylindrical forms at Chunar itself to facilitate transportation.
• These blocks were rolled down the gently sloping hillside or small streams towards the Ganga river for further distribution.

Destinations of Chunar Stone

• The sandstone from Chunar was primarily transported to sites like Sarnath, a major consumer of Chunar stone in ancient times.
• Varanasi showed less evidence of using this stone compared to Sarnath.

Stone-Carving Workshops

• Stone-carving workshops were located along the navigational route connecting Chunar and Sarnath.
• Kotwa, situated on the bank of the Rajapur nala, a tributary of the Ganga, was one such site with evidence of stone working.
• Excavations at Kotwa revealed a significant amount of chiselling debris, broken fragments of carved stone, and a chisel tester, along with a large cylindrical stone block found before excavations.
• The stone carving activities at Kotwa were dated between the 2nd/1st century BCE and the 11th/12th centuries CE based on pottery and stone carving styles.
• The strategic location of these workshops along water routes facilitated the movement of heavy stone blocks and finished products.

The Chunar Quarry

• Chunar was chosen as a quarry site for several reasons: the quality of its stone and its favorable location near the river, which facilitated transportation.
• Other areas, like the Pabosa hills near Allahabad and Dehri-on-Son in Bihar, were not preferred despite their potential.
• The average length of Chunar blocks, ranging from under 1 meter to over 2½ meters, led researcher Jayaswal to investigate whether the Ashokan pillars were truly made from a single piece of stone.
• She examined pillars at Vaishali, Lauriya–Araraj, and Lauriya–Nandangarh and discovered they were constructed from multiple stone pieces.
• In Lauriya–Nandangarh, she noted a weathered section showing that the stone's surface was chiselled but not polished, covered by a thick coat of crushed pink sandstone mixed with haematite pellets.
• The lower surface of this coat was rough, while the upper surface was polished and lustrous.

Historical Significance of Chunar

• Chunar was a major source of sandstone for sculpture and architecture in the Ganga valley during ancient and early medieval times.
• Today, the village of Baragaon near Chunar is inhabited mostly by stone cutters.
• Although quarrying continues in the Chunar hills, modern stone cutters avoid the old quarries.
• They consider the stone from these old quarries unsuitable due to long exposure to the elements, referring to it as mara patthar (dead stone). In contrast, stone from more recent quarries is called jinda patthar (living stone).
• The symbols found on the Ashokan pillars have deep and diverse meanings, connecting with various Indian religious traditions. Besides floral patterns like the lotus and honeysuckle, the tops of the pillars feature different animal motifs.

Medieval and Modern History of Ashokan Pillars

The two Ashokan pillars currently found in Delhi, known as the Delhi–Topra and Delhi–Meerut pillars, have a fascinating history after their initial installation. These pillars were originally erected by Emperor Ashoka to promote his teachings and the glory of the Maurya Empire.

14th Century Accounts

• In the 14th century, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq came across these pillars during his military campaigns. Impressed by their grandeur, he decided to transport them to Delhi.
• Shams Siraj Afif, in his Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, provides a detailed account of how the Topra pillar was moved.

Moving the Topra Pillar

• Afif describes the meticulous process involved in relocating the Topra pillar. Local people and soldiers were instructed to gather at the site with tools and silk cotton from the silk cotton tree.
• The earth around the pillar was carefully excavated, and it was placed on a bed of silk cotton to cushion its fall.
• To facilitate the move, the pillar was encased in reeds and hides and loaded onto a specially designed carriage with 42 wheels.
• The journey to Delhi involved dragging the carriage to the Yamuna River, where it was loaded onto boats for transport.
• Upon reaching Delhi, the pillar was hoisted into its new position in the Sultan's palace complex with great skill and effort.

Misinterpretation of Inscriptions

• At the time of its installation, the inscription on the pillar was in Ashokan Brahmi script, which was no longer readable.
• Some Brahmanas (Brahmins) claimed they could read it and interpreted it as a prophecy that the pillar would not be moved until a great king named Sultan Firuz came along.
• This misinterpretation added to the pillar's significance and the Sultan’s reputation.

Renaming and Further Installations

• The pillar in the Sultan’s palace at Firuzabad (modern Firoz Shah Kotla) became known as the Minar-i-Zarin or the Golden Column.
• The Meerut pillar was installed in Firuz Shah’s hunting palace, known as Kushk-i-Shikar, located near the University of Delhi.

Later Inscriptions and Tourist Marks

• Many Ashokan pillars have later inscriptions added to them, often recording people’s names. This indicates that the practice of tourists marking their names on monuments is not a recent phenomenon.
• The Delhi–Topra pillar has inscriptions from the 12th century belonging to the Chauhan king Vigraharaja IV, showing how the pillar’s original message was repurposed to celebrate a medieval Rajput king.
• There are also several later inscriptions in Sanskrit and Persian from the 13th to 16th centuries.
• The Delhi–Meerut pillar features early medieval Sanskrit inscriptions.
• The Lauriya–Nandangarh inscription includes a Persian inscription from the time of Aurangzeb and an English inscription by Reuben Burrow in 1792. Reuben Burrow was a surveyor who visited the site in the 18th century.

Allahabad Pillar

• The Allahabad pillar, which mentions the mahamatas (high officials) of Kaushambi, likely originated from Kaushambi and was later brought to Allahabad. This pillar features several significant inscriptions:
• The schism edict of Emperor Ashoka.
• The famous Allahabad prashasti, praising the Gupta emperor Samudragupta.
• A genealogical inscription about the Mughal emperor Jahangir.
• This pillar is unique because it carries inscriptions from three different emperors spanning about 2,000 years. Additionally, over time, various names have been scratched onto its surface by different people.

Ashokan Pillar Fragments in Haryana

Two fragments of Ashokan pillars have been found in Hissar and Fatehabad, Haryana:

• Hissar Fragment : Located in front of a mosque built by Firuz Shah Tughluq, this fragment forms the lower part of a composite pillar.
• Fatehabad Fragment : Standing in a prayer ground associated with a late Mughal wall, this fragment is also part of a composite pillar and features a long inscription about Firuz Shah's genealogy.
• It is believed that the Hissar and Fatehabad fragments were originally parts of the same Ashokan pillar.

Ashokan Pillars in Local Traditions

• In some areas, Ashokan pillars or their fragments are worshipped as Shiva lingas. Interestingly, these pillars and fragments are also linked in local traditions to the Pandava brothers, particularly Bhima. They are commonly referred to as Bhim-ki-lat or Bhim-ka-danda, meaning Bhima's pillar or stick.
• This shows how the original meaning and significance of a historical artifact or monument can change drastically over time.

Differences between Maurya and Persian Pillars

Niharranjan Ray has highlighted the differences between Maurya and Persian pillars:

• Capitals: Maurya pillars lack capitals, while Persian pillars have elaborate ones.
• Bases: Persian pillars stand on bases shaped like bells or plain blocks, whereas Maurya pillars have the inverted lotus at the top of the shaft.
• Lotus Ornamentation: The Maurya lotus has a bulge absent in Persian lotuses.
• Surface Texture: Persian pillars are usually fluted, while Maurya pillars are smooth.
• Capitals Decoration: Persian capitals are adorned with stylized palm leaves and back-to-back animals or cups, which are not found in Maurya capitals.
• Absence of Abacus: The Maurya-type abacus and carved animals are absent in Persian pillars.

Cultural Significance of Ashoka's Pillars

• Despite some similarities, the overall effect of Maurya and Persian pillars is different. 
• Ashoka's use of pillars inscribed with messages on dhamma transformed them into unique epigraphic monuments with cultural significance.

Bull Capital, Rampurva

• Artistic Influence and the Ashokan Pillars: The Ashokan pillars, while displaying some similarities to Persian art, likely have their roots in an undocumented prehistory within the subcontinent. They may have evolved from a tradition of wooden carving, with the transition to stone representing a significant leap, influenced by the imperial tastes of the Maurya emperors.
• Other Sculptures from the Maurya Period:Sarnath Monolithic Railing: A polished fragment of a monolithic railing at Sarnath is attributed to the Maurya period. 
• Vajrasana at Bodh Gaya: The vajrasana, or throne of meditation, at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya, is a large stone slab under the bodhi tree, believed to be a descendant of the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. The vajrasana, made of Chunar sandstone, features a carved geometric pattern of intersecting circles on its top surface, with floral palmette designs and geese (hamsas) carved on the sides, similar to the style of Ashokan capitals.
• Rock Sculpture at Dhauli: A naturalistic and powerful rock sculpture of an elephant at Dhauli, Orissa, depicts the front part of the animal with a gracefully curling trunk, suggesting forward movement. The sculpture creates the impression of the elephant walking out of the rock, showcasing the skill of the artist.
• Beginning of Rock-Cut Architecture: The Maurya period marked the beginning of rock-cut architecture, with the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills north of Bodh Gaya containing caves inhabited by ascetics in ancient times. Three caves in the Barabar hills bear dedicative inscriptions of Ashoka, while three in the Nagarjuni hills have inscriptions of his son Dasharatha. The caves are simple in design, featuring plain but highly polished interiors, with the only sculptural ornamentation found in the Lomash Rishi cave.
• Lomash Rishi Cave: The Lomash Rishi cave features a doorway modelled after wooden ones, with a chaitya or gavaksha arch and a carved finial. The doorway is adorned with two bands of relief carving, including a latticework design and a frieze depicting elephants approaching stupas, flanked by makaras (mythical crocodiles). The interior of the cave consists of two connected chambers, with the rectangular one leading into an unfinished round room resembling a thatched hut. The cave next door, lacking the ornamented doorway, has an inscription dedicating it to the Ajivikas by Ashoka, suggesting that the Lomash Rishi cave is of similar age.

The Parkham Yaksha: Then and Now

Yakshas were deities associated with water, fertility, trees, and the wilderness, while Yakshis, their female counterparts, were originally benign goddesses linked to fertility. Images of yakshas and yakshis, made of stone and terracotta, have been discovered at various sites across the Indian subcontinent, suggesting that their worship was a significant aspect of popular religion in ancient India.

Yaksha Image from Parkham

• Many yaksha images have been found in the Mathura region, with the most famous being a massive grey sandstone figure, 2.59 meters high, discovered near a tank in Parkham village, south of Mathura city.
• Art historians debate the dating of this image, with some suggesting it belongs to the 2nd or 1st century BCE based on stylistic analysis. However, a Brahmi inscription on its pedestal indicates a 3rd century BCE date.
• The inscription credits Gomitaka, a pupil of Kunika, with making the image and states that it was set up by eight brothers from the Manibhadra puga (congregation).
• This image represents the yaksha Manibhadra, a protective deity for merchants and travelers, particularly worshipped in major trading centers.

Modern Worship in Parkham

• The colossal image of yaksha Manibhadra was transferred from Parkham village to the Mathura Museum long ago. However, in January during the month of Magh, a yaksha fair known as Jakhaiya mela is held in Parkham village.
• During this festival, hundreds of people from surrounding villages gather to worship a small yaksha image, a modern and modest substitute for the original colossal statue.
• The original yaksha figure conveys a sense of strength and protection, with its broken right hand likely raised in the abhaya-mudra, a gesture of granting protection. In contrast, the contemporary yaksha image, with its cheerful demeanor and friendly wave, reflects a different but still meaningful form of worship.
• Despite the differences, the modern celebration on three consecutive Sundays in January restores some of the significance that the yaksha once held in the Mathura region over 2,000 years ago.

Terracotta Art in Urban Centres

• Terracotta art experienced significant growth alongside the expansion of urban centres. The terracottas from this period exhibit a wide range of themes, styles, and potential meanings, providing valuable insights into popular practices, beliefs, and aesthetics of the time.
• These terracottas include figurines of both males and females, animals, and carts. While some of these items may have served as toys, others, particularly certain female figurines, likely held deeper cultural or ritual significance.

The Decline of the Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire, being the first of its kind in the Indian subcontinent, has drawn significant scholarly interest, particularly regarding its decline. After the long reigns of the first three Maurya rulers, the empire was led by several weak rulers with short reigns. Only one of the later Maurya rulers, Dasharatha, is known to have issued inscriptions; others are known mainly from Puranic, Buddhist, and Jaina texts. The empire was further weakened by an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks.

• Ashoka, the most famous Maurya emperor, has been both criticized and defended for his role in the empire's decline. Some scholars, like Haraprasad Sastri, argue that Pushyamitra Shunga's coup was a Brahmanical reaction against Ashoka's policies, which favored heterodox sects and restricted animal sacrifices. 
• These actions may have upset Brahmanas, whose livelihoods depended on sacrifices, and diminished their prestige. However, Sastri misinterprets a key sentence in Ashoka's rock edict, mistaking it for a boast about exposing Brahmanas as false gods. In reality, Ashoka's inscriptions promote respect for both shramanas and Brahmanas, indicating that the Maurya dynasty's end was not due to any revolution.
• Ashoka's pacifist approach is also blamed for the empire's decline. However, he did not disband the army, abolish capital punishment, or shy away from stern actions against tribal communities. His reign, marked by only one military campaign in the early years, may have weakened the army's preparedness, contributing to the success of the Greek invasion.

The decline of the Maurya Empire can also be attributed to various factors:

• Weak Leadership: After the strong rulers, the later Maurya kings were weak, leading to a decline in effective governance.
• Invasions: The invasion by the Bactrian Greeks put additional pressure on the already weakening empire.
• Financial or Economic Crisis: While there is no concrete evidence for a financial or economic crisis, such factors could have contributed to the decline.
• Centralization: If the Maurya Empire was not as centralized as previously thought, the decline could be attributed to local factors rather than a weak central authority.
• Ashoka's policies, both in terms of his military campaigns and his administrative decisions, played a crucial role in the later years of the empire. 
• His emphasis on dharma and moral governance, while admirable, may have led to a decline in military readiness and bureaucratic strength, paving the way for the empire's eventual downfall.

Decline of the Maurya Empire

Anachronistic Arguments:

• Some reasons for the decline, like those suggested by Thapar, are out of place for ancient times. They mention things not typical of ancient states, such as:
• Nationalism: The idea of a strong national identity was not present.
• Loyalty to the State: People were more loyal to individual kings than to the state as a whole.
• Popular Representative Institutions: These were lacking in ancient India.

Appointment of Officials:

• It is true that the Maurya Empire relied on personal selection for appointing officials and did not have a Chinese-style examination system.
• However, this point does not significantly explain the empire's decline.

Challenges of the Empire:

• The Maurya Empire was vast and diverse, making it difficult to maintain control.
• While the empire struggled to restructure the economies of its core and peripheral areas, blaming its decline solely on this issue overlooks the complexities involved.

Need for General Explanations:

• Explanations for the decline must be broad due to the nature of the evidence available.
• All empires depend on mechanisms for integrating and controlling their territory, resources, and people, which include:
• Military Force: Essential for maintaining control, especially in distant provinces.
• Administrative Infrastructure: Necessary for effective governance and management.
• Ideology: Helps in unifying and justifying the empire's rule.

Strain on Resources:

• In the case of the Mauryas, these three mechanisms were likely pushed to their limits given the empire's vast size.
• Over time, this strain made it inevitable for the distant provinces to break away from central control.

Conclusions

• During the Maurya period, the first empire of the Indian subcontinent was established. This vast empire necessitated new governance strategies. The era is notable not only for its empire-building but also for Emperor Ashoka, who abandoned military ambitions to promote dhamma, rooted in his faith in the Buddha’s teachings. 
• However, Ashoka’s dhamma was broader, aimed at all subjects. The Mauryan imperial power was evident in grand stone sculptures and structures, with significant advancements in rock-cut and stupa architecture. Numerous artefacts from this period reflect popular aesthetic and religious beliefs. 
• The social and economic processes of agrarian expansion and urbanization that began in earlier centuries continued under Maurya rule, leading to further growth in cities, trade, and the money economy.