UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: Sociology Paper 1 (Section- B) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q5: Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

(a) Describe various characteristics of a ‘social fact’. How is the rate of suicide a social fact according to Durkheim?  (10 Marks)
Ans: Social facts, a concept introduced by Emile Durkheim, are fundamental to the study of sociology. These are collective ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist independently of individual consciousness and exert a coercive influence on individuals.

Key characteristics of social facts include:

1. Externality: Social facts exist outside and independently of individual actions or thoughts.
2. Constraint: They exert pressure on individuals, compelling conformity to societal norms.
3. Generality: Social facts are widespread and shared by members of a society or social group.
4. Objectivity: They can be observed and studied empirically, much like natural phenomena.

Durkheim exemplified social facts through his study of suicide, demonstrating that what appears to be a deeply personal act is, in fact, influenced by social forces:

• Suicide rates remain relatively stable over time within societies.
• Different societies exhibit distinct suicide rates.
• Rates fluctuate based on social conditions, such as economic crises or wars.

Why Durkheim considered suicide rates as social facts:

1. Collective nature: Suicide rates reflect collective phenomena, existing beyond individual cases.
2. External force: They are influenced by external social conditions that impact individual decisions.
3. Measurability: Suicide rates can be studied empirically and display consistent patterns across social groups.
4. Response to social changes: Variations in suicide rates correlate with broader societal conditions, highlighting their connection to social forces.

Conclusion: By analyzing suicide as a social fact, Durkheim demonstrated how seemingly personal actions are shaped by collective societal forces. This established a cornerstone for sociological inquiry, emphasizing the study of external, observable social phenomena.

(b) Explain G.H. Mead’s idea of development of ‘self’ through the ‘generalised other’.  (10 Marks)
Ans: 
G.H. Mead’s Development of ‘Self’ Through the ‘Generalized Other’
G.H. Mead’s theory of self-development through the concept of the "generalized other" is a fundamental aspect of symbolic interactionism, underscoring the social origins of the self.
Mead’s argument: The self emerges through social interaction and role-taking, evolving in two key stages:

1. Play Stage: Children imitate specific roles, such as playing "doctor" or "teacher," learning to take on the perspectives of individual others.
2. Game Stage: Individuals internalize multiple roles simultaneously, understanding the organized attitudes of the broader social group, which Mead termed the "generalized other."

The “generalized other” embodies societal norms, shared meanings, and expectations. Through this concept, individuals:

• Anticipate how others might respond to their actions.
• Evaluate their behavior from the perspective of societal standards.
• Develop self-awareness and self-regulation.

Example: A student learns to act appropriately in class by internalizing the expectations of teachers, classmates, and the education system as a whole.

Key insight: Mead’s theory emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between individual and society. The self is not an innate quality but a socially constructed entity, shaped through symbolic communication and role-taking within the community. This process allows individuals to align their behaviors with societal norms while fostering self-awareness.

(c) Describe the differing principles of work organization in feudal and capitalist societies.  (10 Marks)
Ans: The principles of work organization in feudal and capitalist societies differ significantly, reflecting their distinct economic and social structures.

Feudal work organization:

• Based on a rigid hierarchical system of lords and serfs.
• Centered on land ownership, with agricultural labor as the primary form of work.
• Characterized by personal bonds and mutual obligations between social classes.
• Limited social mobility, with occupations often inherited.
• Focused on subsistence-oriented production for local consumption rather than market exchange.
• Example: The medieval manorial system in Europe.

Capitalist work organization:

• Centered on wage labor and the pursuit of profit.
• Features a division of labor and specialization, as described by Adam Smith.
• Emphasizes efficiency and productivity, exemplified by practices like Taylorism.
• Driven by market-oriented production for exchange value.
• Allows for increased social mobility through merit, skills, and education.
• Example: The factory system during the Industrial Revolution.

Conclusion: The transition from feudal to capitalist work organization marked a profound shift in social relations, economic structures, and labor practices. This transformation fundamentally altered societal development and individual experiences of work, shaping the modern economy and labor systems we know today.

(d) How is 'power' different from 'authority'? Discuss various types of authorities as theorized by Max Weber.  (10 Marks)
Ans: Power is the ability to influence others’ behavior, even against their will, using methods such as force or persuasion. Authority, on the other hand, refers to legitimized power that is recognized as rightful by those it governs. Authority involves voluntary compliance based on perceived legitimacy, while power can exist without authority. However, effective authority often relies on power to enforce decisions.
Max Weber’s Three Types of Authority:
1. Traditional Authority:

• Based on long-standing customs, traditions, and social structures.
• Power is inherited or sanctioned by established customs.
• Example: Monarchies where rule is passed down through generations.

2. Charismatic Authority:

• Stems from an individual’s exceptional personal qualities or charisma.
• Followers attribute special powers or qualities to the leader.
• Example: Religious figures like the Dalai Lama or political leaders like Martin Luther King Jr.

3. Legal-Rational Authority:

• Rooted in established rules, laws, and formal procedures.
• Power resides in the position rather than the individual occupying it.
• Example: Elected officials in democratic systems or CEOs in corporations.

Weber’s Insights:
Weber observed that these types of authority often overlap and can evolve over time. For instance, charismatic authority may transition into traditional or legal-rational authority as the leader’s influence becomes institutionalized.

Conclusion:
Weber’s typology offers a framework to understand how power is legitimized in society, shedding light on social structures and the dynamics of power and authority in various contexts.

(e) Critically examine the roles of science and technology in social change. What is your opinion on their increasing trend in 'online' education and teaching?  (10 Marks)
Ans: Science and technology have been pivotal in driving social change, transforming societies through advancements in knowledge and tools.
Key Sociological Perspectives:

1. Karl Marx: Viewed technological innovation as a force reshaping the economic base, which in turn influences social structures and relations of production.
2. Max Weber: Emphasized the role of scientific progress in advancing rationalization, which led to the development of bureaucratic systems and modern organization.

Positive Impacts:

• Enhanced efficiency, connectivity, and access to information.
• Empowerment of social movements, such as the role of social media in the Arab Spring.
• Transformative periods like the Industrial Revolution and the Information Age brought profound societal advancements.

Criticisms and Challenges:

• Technological determinism: Critics argue that overemphasis on technology as the sole driver of societal change overlooks the interplay of social, political, and cultural factors.
• Digital divide: Technology can deepen existing inequalities, creating disparities in access and opportunities.
• Privacy concerns: The rise of surveillance technologies has led to debates about data security and individual rights.

Online Education Trend:
Benefits:

• Flexibility and wider reach allow learners to access education anytime and anywhere.
• Democratization of learning opportunities breaks traditional barriers to education.
• Provides quality education to remote learners who otherwise lack access to resources.

Challenges:

• Disparities arise from unequal access to technology, such as internet connectivity and devices.
• Reduced social interaction may hinder the development of interpersonal skills.
• Concerns about the quality of online pedagogy and engagement remain unresolved.

Conclusion: Science and technology serve as powerful drivers of social transformation, fostering innovation and progress. However, addressing associated challenges like inequality, privacy concerns, and the digital divide is essential to ensure these advancements benefit all members of society.

Q6: (a) Underline the role of social media in contemporary social movements and describe its challenges.  (20 Marks)
Ans: Social media has emerged as a transformative force in modern social movements, reshaping how activists organize, communicate, and mobilize for collective action. Its pervasive influence has revolutionized traditional forms of protest and advocacy, offering both significant opportunities and distinct challenges.
Role of social media in contemporary social movements:

1. Rapid mobilization: Platforms like Twitter and Facebook enable swift organization of protests and events. For example, during the Arab Spring of 2011, social media was instrumental in coordinating demonstrations across the Middle East and North Africa.
2. Amplification of marginalized voices: Social media creates a space for underrepresented groups to share their experiences and rally support. The Black Lives Matter movement effectively uses hashtags and viral content to draw attention to systemic racism and police brutality.
3. Globalization of local issues: Social media transcends geographical boundaries, allowing local movements to gain international traction. The #MeToo movement, which began in the United States, quickly spread globally, uniting individuals against sexual harassment.
4. Real-time information sharing: Social media provides immediate updates during protests or crises, crucial for coordination and safety. For instance, Hong Kong pro-democracy protesters used encrypted messaging apps to evade surveillance and organize flash mobs.
5. Formation of virtual communities: Online platforms facilitate the creation of networks centered on shared causes, fostering what sociologist Manuel Castells calls “networks of outrage and hope.”

Challenges:

• Misinformation: The rapid spread of unverified information can lead to confusion and exacerbate tensions, as observed during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Surveillance and censorship: Governments often monitor online activities, leading to suppression of dissent. Some regimes have even implemented internet shutdowns to stifle movements.
• Slacktivism: Online engagement, such as sharing posts or signing petitions, may not translate into offline action, creating what sociologist Evgeny Morozov terms an illusion of meaningful participation.
• Echo chambers and polarization: Algorithm-driven content curation reinforces existing beliefs, hindering constructive dialogue between opposing viewpoints.
• Privacy concerns: Activists face risks of personal data breaches, potentially leading to harassment or targeting by opposition groups.

Conclusion: Social media empowers movements by amplifying voices, connecting individuals globally, and facilitating real-time coordination. However, addressing its challenges—such as misinformation, censorship, and polarization—is essential for sustaining effective and meaningful social change in the digital age.

(b) How does a multicultural society accommodate diversities of all kinds—ethnic, linguistic, and religious? Discuss its major challenges.  (20 Marks)
Ans: A multicultural society is defined by the coexistence of diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups within a single nation. Successfully accommodating these diversities is essential for fostering social harmony and national progress. This response examines how multicultural societies manage diversity and addresses the challenges they face, with India as a primary example.
Accommodation of Diversities:

1. Legal Framework: Laws protecting minority rights and prohibiting discrimination play a pivotal role, such as Article 15 of the Indian Constitution, which ensures equality and non-discrimination.
2. Cultural Recognition: Celebrating diverse cultural practices, festivals, and traditions helps promote inclusion, exemplified by India’s numerous national and regional holidays.
3. Linguistic Inclusion: Policies like India’s Three-Language Formula support multilingualism in education and governance, ensuring linguistic diversity is respected.
4. Religious Freedom: Article 25 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to practice any religion and protects places of worship, fostering religious tolerance.
5. Political Representation: Systems like India’s reservation policy for Scheduled Castes and Tribes ensure minority voices are represented in government and decision-making.
6. Educational Policies: Initiatives such as multicultural curricula and teaching tolerance, emphasized in India’s National Education Policy 2020, promote understanding and respect for diversity.

Major Challenges:

• Balancing Unity and Diversity: Ensuring national cohesion while respecting cultural differences remains a challenge, as seen in debates over Hindi as a national language in India.
• Addressing Historical Inequalities: Overcoming entrenched prejudices and socio-economic disparities, such as caste-based discrimination, is a persistent issue in India.
• Managing Conflicting Values: Reconciling traditional practices with modern democratic principles, such as personal laws, can create tensions in multicultural settings.
• Preventing Ghettoization: Avoiding the formation of isolated ethnic or religious enclaves, which hinder integration, has been observed in certain Indian urban areas.
• Combating Extremism: Countering radical ideologies stemming from perceived marginalization or cultural clashes remains a significant challenge across regions in India.
• Resource Allocation: Distributing resources equitably among diverse groups without fostering resentment, particularly regarding reservation policies, is a recurring issue in India.

Conclusion: Multicultural societies must constantly adapt their strategies to balance diversity and unity. Inclusive policies, cultural recognition, and equitable resource distribution are essential for promoting harmony while addressing emerging challenges in an ever-evolving societal landscape.

(c) Discuss the concept of animism and differentiate it from naturism.  (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Animism and Naturism
Animism and naturism are foundational concepts in the study of religion, particularly in early societies. Although they are related in their focus on the natural world, they have distinct characteristics and implications.

Animism:

• Coined by Edward Tylor in 1871, animism is the belief that all things—including animals, plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena—possess a spirit or soul.
• It views these spirits as conscious entities capable of influencing human affairs, often requiring rituals or practices to appease or communicate with them.
• Example: The Shinto religion in Japan, where spirits known as kami inhabit natural objects like trees, rocks, and rivers.

Naturism:

• Proposed by Max Müller as an alternative to animism, naturism emphasizes the worship of natural phenomena themselves, rather than spirits within them.
• It regards nature as inherently sacred or divine, often leading to the personification of natural forces as deities.
• Example: Ancient Egyptian religion, where Ra, the sun god, was venerated as a representation of the sun’s divinity.

Key Differences Between Animism and Naturism:

1. Attribution of Consciousness: Animism attributes consciousness or spirit to objects and phenomena, while naturism venerates nature itself as divine.
2. Multiplicity of Entities: Animism involves a multitude of spirits associated with specific entities, whereas naturism often evolves into polytheistic or pantheistic systems focused on broader natural forces.
3. Complexity of Belief Systems: Animism is often localized and specific, tied to particular landscapes or communities, while naturism can develop into more structured and complex religious systems.

Conclusion: Both animism and naturism offer insights into early religious thought, reflecting humanity’s connection with the natural world. While animism emphasizes the spiritual essence of all things, naturism focuses on the inherent divinity of nature itself, providing two distinct yet complementary perspectives on humanity’s engagement with the environment.

Q7: (a) Do modernization and secularization necessarily go together? Give your views.  (20 Marks)
Ans: Modernization refers to the transition from traditional, agrarian systems to industrialized and technologically advanced structures, while secularization denotes the diminishing influence of religion in public life and individual consciousness. The relationship between these processes is complex and context-dependent.

Classical Perspective:

1. Max Weber: Modernization involves rationalization and disenchantment, leading to secularization. As societies adopt rational-scientific thought, traditional religious explanations lose authority.
2. Émile Durkheim: In industrial societies, the decline in collective consciousness rooted in religion occurs as individualism rises.
3. Peter Berger: Argued that modernization inevitably leads to secularization, as seen in societies where scientific reasoning and critical thinking challenge religious worldviews.

Supporting Evidence:

• Western Europe: Countries like Sweden and France exemplify the secularization thesis, with high modernization levels and low religious participation.
• Contributing factors: The rise of scientific reasoning, increased education promoting critical thinking, and the separation of church and state reduce religion's influence in governance.

Challenging the Universal Link:

1. United States: A highly modernized society that retains robust religious institutions and high religious participation.
2. India and Iran: Both experienced significant modernization, yet religion remains central in social and political life.
3. Global religious resurgence: The late 20th century saw increased religious movements, contradicting earlier predictions of inevitable secularization.

Theory of Multiple Modernities:

• Proposed by Shmuel Eisenstadt: Modernization doesn’t follow a single Western blueprint but varies across historical and cultural contexts.
• Religious resurgence: In some societies, modernization reinvigorates religious movements, such as Islamism in parts of the Middle East.
• Cultural diversity: Explains why some societies maintain strong religious vitality alongside modern institutions.

Conclusion: While modernization may contribute to secularization in certain contexts, their relationship is neither universal nor inevitable. The interplay between these processes varies widely across cultures and historical periods, requiring a nuanced understanding of societal dynamics.

(b) How do you understand the phenomena of the mushrooming of sects and cults in contemporary society? Discuss the factors responsible for the trend.  (20 Marks)
Ans: 
The Mushrooming of Sects and Cults in Contemporary Society
The rise of sects and cults in contemporary society reflects broader changes in the religious landscape and individual quests for meaning. This phenomenon can be analyzed through multiple sociological perspectives and factors:

1. Secularization and Religious Market Theory:

• The decline of traditional religious institutions creates a “spiritual marketplace.”
• Sects and cults offer unique belief systems and practices tailored to diverse needs.
• Example: The rise of New Age movements in Western countries.

2. Anomie and Social Disintegration:

• Rapid social change leads to feelings of alienation and normlessness.
• Sects and cults provide a sense of belonging and clear moral frameworks.
• Example: Growth of apocalyptic cults during periods of social upheaval.

3. Individualization and Personal Choice:

• Modern emphasis on self-fulfillment aligns with the promises of personal transformation offered by sects and cults.
• These movements often provide tailored spiritual experiences.
• Example: The popularity of personalized spiritual coaching and retreats.

4. Globalization and Cultural Diffusion:

• Increased exposure to diverse belief systems broadens spiritual horizons.
• The internet and social media facilitate the rapid spread of new religious movements.
• Example: The Western adoption of Eastern-inspired practices like mindfulness and yoga.

5. Charismatic Leadership:

• Sects and cults are often centered around compelling leaders who offer personal connections and vision.
• This contrasts with the bureaucratic nature of established religions.
• Example: The cult of personality surrounding figures like Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (Osho).

6. Response to Modernity:

• Some movements emerge as reactions against perceived societal ills, offering alternative lifestyles or apocalyptic narratives.
• Example: Off-grid communities rejecting modern technology and embracing simpler ways of living.

7. Psychological Needs:

• Sects and cults provide clear answers, community, and purpose in a complex and often disorienting world.
• They address individual searches for identity and meaning.
• Example: Scientology’s appeal through promises of self-improvement and self-actualization.

Conclusion: The proliferation of sects and cults reflects societal transformations, catering to various individual and collective needs in an evolving religious landscape. This trend underscores the dynamic interplay between modernity, cultural diffusion, and human desires for belonging and purpose.

(c) Discuss the dimensions of power in the construction and maintenance of social hierarchies in a society.  (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Dimensions of Power in Social Hierarchies
Power is a fundamental force in shaping and maintaining social hierarchies within societies. It operates across multiple dimensions, influencing various aspects of social life and reinforcing stratification.

1. Economic Power:

• Karl Marx identified power as stemming from ownership of the means of production, creating class distinctions between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.
• Economic power underpins material inequalities and drives social stratification.
• Example: The wealth gap between business owners and workers in capitalist societies.

2. Political Power:

• Max Weber defined power as the ability to impose one’s will despite resistance, exercised through traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority.
• Political structures legitimize and sustain hierarchical relations.
• Example: Monarchs exercising traditional authority to maintain status over subjects.

3. Cultural Power:

• Pierre Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital, where knowledge, education, and social connections grant power.
• Cultural power privileges those with access to elite institutions and networks.
• Example: Elite universities conferring advantages on those with access to their resources and networks.

4. Symbolic Power:

• Michel Foucault highlighted the role of knowledge and discourse in exercising power through societal institutions.
• Disciplinary power shapes norms and behaviors, controlling bodies and minds.
• Example: Prisons and schools reinforcing social hierarchies through surveillance and normalization of specific behaviors.

5. Intersectionality:

• Power operates at the intersection of race, gender, class, and ethnicity.
• Patricia Hill Collins emphasized the compounded oppression faced by individuals with overlapping marginalized identities.
• Example: Black women experiencing unique forms of stratification due to the intersection of race and gender.

Conclusion: Power manifests through economic, political, cultural, symbolic, and intersectional dimensions, creating intricate social hierarchies that shape societal structures and sustain inequalities. Understanding these dimensions is crucial to addressing the mechanisms of stratification and promoting equitable social systems.

Q8: (a) Modern families have not just become nuclear and neo-local, but also filiocentric. How do you explain this trend?  (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Modern Families and the Rise of Filiocentrism
Modern families have evolved from traditional forms into nuclear and neo-local units while increasingly becoming filiocentric, placing children at the center of family life. This transformation reflects profound social and cultural changes influencing family structures and priorities.

Shift to Nuclear and Neo-Local Families:
The transition toward nuclear and neo-local families began with industrialization and urbanization. Couples moved away from extended family households to establish independent residences (neo-local units) that supported economic opportunities and mobility. This structure allowed smaller, nuclear families to adapt to the demands of modern societies, emphasizing efficiency and individual autonomy.

The Rise of Filiocentrism:
Filiocentrism, where children become the focal point of family life, has emerged due to several interrelated factors:

• Changing Perceptions of Childhood: Modern society views childhood as a distinct, protected phase requiring significant care and nurturing. Philippe Ariès highlighted this shift, showing how societal recognition of childhood has increased parental focus on their children’s well-being.
• Declining Birth Rates: Smaller family sizes, driven by lower fertility rates, allow parents to concentrate more resources, time, and attention on each child. This intensifies the emphasis on children’s education, health, and personal development.
• Economic and Social Mobility: In contemporary societies, education is regarded as a pathway to upward mobility. Parents invest heavily in their children’s academic and extracurricular activities to secure better futures, aligning family goals around the child’s success.
• Emphasis on Emotional Bonds: Modern families prioritize emotional fulfillment, focusing on nurturing strong parent-child relationships. Talcott Parsons argued that families serve as a haven for emotional support and socialization, reinforcing children’s central role in modern family dynamics.
• Influence of Consumer Culture: Children have become significant influencers in family consumption decisions. Media and marketing often target children directly, and parents frequently shape purchasing patterns around their children’s preferences, reinforcing their importance in family life.

Examples of Filiocentrism:
Families today often structure their routines and priorities around children’s schedules, such as extracurricular activities, educational commitments, and even choosing residences based on school quality. Parents increasingly involve children in major family decisions, reflecting their central role in modern households.

Conclusion: The evolution toward filiocentric families arises from societal changes that elevate children’s roles, reshaping family dynamics and priorities. Modern families emphasize nurturing, education, and emotional bonds, reflecting the deep influence of cultural and economic shifts on family structures in contemporary life.

(b) Discuss various theories of social change. Explain the limitations of unilinear theory of social change.  (20 Marks)
Ans: Social change refers to significant transformations in social structures, cultural patterns, and behaviors over time. Various sociological theories offer explanations for this complex phenomenon:

1. Evolutionary Theories:

• Unilinear Evolution: Auguste Comte’s “Law of Three Stages” (theological, metaphysical, positivist) and Herbert Spencer’s application of “survival of the fittest” to societies suggest a single, inevitable path of societal progress.
• Multilinear Evolution: Leslie White and Julian Steward emphasize multiple evolutionary pathways shaped by environmental and historical contexts, allowing for diverse trajectories of societal development.

2. Functionalist Theory:

• Talcott Parsons’ Structural Functionalism: Society is viewed as a system striving for equilibrium. Parsons’ AGIL framework (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency) explains how subsystems work together to maintain societal stability.

3. Conflict Theories:

• Karl Marx’s Historical Materialism: Highlights class struggles and economic factors as the primary drivers of social change through dialectical processes.
• C. Wright Mills’ Power Elite: Focuses on conflict between the ruling elite and the masses, driving societal transformations.

4. Cyclical Theories:

• Vilfredo Pareto and Pitirim Sorokin: Propose that societies experience cycles of growth and decline, challenging the idea of linear progression.

5. Weberian Theory:

• Max Weber’s Rationalization: Emphasizes the role of religious ideas in driving social change, as seen in “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,” which links cultural shifts to economic transformations.

Limitations of Unilinear Theories:

1. Ethnocentrism: Unilinear models often reflect Western biases, ignoring diverse cultural contexts and non-Western development pathways.
2. Determinism: They suggest inevitable progression, neglecting human agency, free will, and the impact of unpredictable historical events.
3. Oversimplification: Unilinear theories fail to account for societal regression, stage-skipping, or unique development paths in complex modern societies.
4. Neglect of Multidimensional Factors: These models overlook the interplay of politics, culture, ideology, and global interconnectedness in shaping social change.
5. Static View of Societies: They disregard internal diversities, subcultures, and conflicts that significantly influence societal trajectories.

Examples:

• Rapid technological advancements in developing nations challenge the idea of fixed developmental stages, showing how societies can leapfrog traditional pathways.
• Social movements and revolutions, such as the Arab Spring, demonstrate how internal conflicts and collective action can reshape societal directions, defying unilinear predictions.

Conclusion: While unilinear theories offer foundational insights into social change, their limitations highlight the need for more comprehensive frameworks. These must account for diversity, agency, and the multifaceted influences shaping societal transformations, providing a richer understanding of how societies evolve.

(c) Critically examine the World-Systems theory of Immanuel Wallerstein in terms of development and dependency of various nations.  (10 Marks)
Ans: 
World-Systems Theory
Developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, World-Systems theory provides a macro-sociological framework for understanding global inequalities by analyzing economic relationships among nations. It challenges traditional modernization theories by highlighting the interconnectedness of nations within a capitalist world economy.

Key Aspects of World-Systems Theory:
1. Core-Periphery Structure: Wallerstein categorizes countries into three groups:

• Core nations: Economically dominant, technologically advanced, and exploitative of other regions.
• Periphery nations: Economically dependent, providing raw materials and cheap labor to core nations.
• Semi-periphery nations: Intermediate regions, displaying characteristics of both core and periphery, acting as a buffer.

2. Uneven Development and Dependency:
The capitalist world economy perpetuates uneven development by fostering dependency. Core nations exploit periphery nations for resources and labor, maintaining global hierarchies and underdevelopment in peripheral regions.

3. Historical Perspective:
Wallerstein builds upon dependency theory, emphasizing historical processes like colonialism and imperialism as foundational in creating and sustaining global inequalities.

4. Role of Semi-Periphery:
Semi-periphery nations, such as emerging economies, bridge the gap between the core and periphery. They may exploit periphery nations while being subject to exploitation by core nations.

Criticisms:

• Economic Determinism: Critics argue that the theory overly focuses on economic factors, neglecting cultural, political, and internal dynamics within nations.
• Limited Agency: It underrepresents the ability of periphery nations to resist or reshape their roles in the global system.
• Overlooking Mutual Benefits: Instances where globalization has created shared benefits are often overlooked.

Examples:

• European exploitation of African nations: Historical colonial practices entrenched dependency, with ongoing economic relationships maintaining inequalities.
• China and India: The ascent of these nations challenges traditional core-periphery dynamics, showcasing shifts in global power structures.

Conclusion: World-Systems theory offers valuable insights into global inequalities by emphasizing economic interconnectedness and historical legacies. However, its focus on economic determinism may oversimplify the complexities of international relationships, necessitating a more nuanced understanding of cultural, political, and social factors.