Interaction and Innovation, c. 200 BCE–300 CE - 4 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Crafts and Guilds

Archaeological and Literary Evidence of Crafts and Guilds

North India:

• Archaeological Evidence: Detailed findings indicate specific craft activities across different regions.
• Literary Sources: Buddhist texts like the Angavijja, Lalitavistara, Milindapanha, and Mahavastu mention various professions, crafts, and guilds of artisans and traders. For example, the Milindapanha lists around 60 types of crafts.
• Localization of Crafts: Jataka stories highlight villages named after the main profession of their residents, such as potters, carpenters, and metal smiths. In towns, specific craftspersons' houses were often clustered in particular streets or quarters.

South India:

• Sangam Literature: This ancient literature reflects the existence of specialized crafts like weaving, gem working, shell working, and metal working.

Hereditary Craftsmanship and Social Mobility

• The Jataka stories often use the suffix kula (family) or putta (son of) with various craft terms, suggesting that sons typically inherited their father's profession. For instance:
• kula: satthavahakula (family of caravan traders), kumbhakarakula (potters’ family)
• putta: satthavahaputta (son of a caravan trader), nisadaputta (son of a hunter)

Examples:

• An inscription from Jamalpur in Mathura records the Chhandaka brothers, stone masons (shailalakas), setting up a stone slab for a naga shrine, likely following their father's profession.
• While many occupations were hereditary, there was also some degree of flexibility and social mobility.

Variety of Craft Specialization

• Inscriptions: Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from various regions mention different artisans, including masons, master masons, carpenters, and goldsmiths.
• Donative Inscriptions: Sites like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Mathura record pious gifts from artisans such as potters, weavers, masons, goldsmiths, carpenters, sculptors, and ivory workers. Inscriptions from the western Deccan highlight occupational groups like jewellers (manikara), goldsmiths (suvanakara), blacksmiths (kamara), ironmongers (loha-vanij), and perfumers.

• Inscriptions from the past show the involvement of various craftspeople, such as goldsmiths, stone masons, and potters, in the construction of religious sites like the Mahavihara at Devnimori. These inscriptions highlight the prosperity and social standing of these artisans, as well as their connections to growing religious centers.
• During the period from around 200 BCE to 300 CE, there was a notable increase in the number and scale of guilds. The Jatakas mention 18 guilds, but only name four: woodworkers, smiths, leather workers, and painters. The actual number of guilds likely varied over time and place.
• The Mahavastu lists various guilds in Kapilavastu, including gold workers, ivory carvers, stone carvers, and food producers. Inscriptions from the western Deccan and Nashik also mention guilds involved in activities like weaving, pottery, and trade.
• In the Tamil region, inscriptions from Mangulam near Madurai refer to a merchant guild that contributed to the carving of stone beds for Jaina ascetics. Members of this guild held high status, as indicated by honorary titles.
• In the Jatakas, the head of a craftspersons' guild is called jetthaka or pamukkha. There are mentions of guild leaders for various crafts, such as garland makers, metal workers, carpenters, and caravan traders. The Jatakas also frequently mention sarthavahas, who are heads of caravan merchants. The head of a merchant guild is referred to as a setthi in the Jatakas. The Manu and Yajnavalkya Smritis provide a more detailed account of guilds, including the qualifications and powers of guild officers, rules regarding apprenticeship, and the judicial role of guilds. Inscriptions suggest that guilds also functioned as bankers.
• Guilds seem to have had a close relationship with kings. The Mugapakkha Jataka mentions the heads of 18 guilds as part of a king's entourage. The Suchi Jataka describes the head of a blacksmiths' village as a favorite of the king. The Nigrodha Jataka implies that a royal officer called the bhandagarika had some authority over guilds. The Uraga Jataka mentions guild heads being appointed as mahamatras. The Arthashastra advises officials to keep records of guild transactions and conventions and suggests designating specific areas in towns for guild activities. The term shreni-bala in the Arthashastra likely refers to a corporate organization of warriors rather than regular troops.
• The Dharmashastra texts give kings the right to intervene in guild affairs in certain situations. The Manu Smriti states that a guild member who breaks an agreement out of greed should be banished by the king. The Yajnavalkya Smriti suggests that the king should resolve guild disputes and punish guilds that cheat the king or migrate. However, later inscriptions indicate that guilds did migrate without incurring punishment from the king.

Guilds as Bankers

• During this period, several inscriptions indicate that people invested money with guilds as a pious endowment, with the interest intended for Brahmanas, Buddhist monks, or other religious activities. While guilds may have engaged in more ordinary banking transactions, records of such activities have not survived.
• A historical inscription from Mathura, dating back to 106 CE during the reign of the Kushana king Huvishka, mentions a permanent investment of 550 puranas with a guild of samitakaras, possibly flour-makers, and 500 puranas with another guild whose name is unclear. The donor, Kanasarukamana, likely a subordinate of the Kushanas, intended the interest from these investments to fund monthly meals for 100 Brahmanas in an open hall and daily food for the destitute, hungry, and thirsty.

Investment in Agricultural Fields

• An inscription from Junnar refers to an investment made by Aduthuma with a guild at Konachika.
• The investment involved the income from two agricultural fields located at Vadalika.
• The purpose of the investment was to plant karanja and banyan trees in the area.

Investment with Guilds

• Another inscription from Junnar records an investment made with guilds of bamboo workers and braziers.
• The specifics of the investment, such as the amount and purpose, are not detailed in the inscription.

Inscription from Nashik

Permanent Investment by Ushavadata

• A Nashik inscription from the reign of Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana documents a permanent investment of 3,000 karshapanas by Ushavadata, the king’s son-in-law.
• The investment included 2,000 karshapanas with a weaver’s guild at a 1% interest rate and 1,000 karshapanas with another weaver’s guild at ¾% per month.

Purpose of Investments

• The interest from the first investment was designated to provide cloth worth 12 karshapanas for each of the 20 monks living in the monastery.
• The interest from the second investment was meant to provide the monks with light meals.

Guild Assembly and Inscription

• The investments were announced in the guild assembly, known as nigama-sabha, and inscribed on stone for permanent record.

Interest Rates and Comparisons

• Thaplyal highlights this inscription as unique in specifying interest rates on monetary investments.
• The monthly and annual interest rates calculated to 12% and 9% respectively.
• These rates were lower than the standard 1¼% per month mentioned in the Arthashastra and Smritis.

Guild Variations and Interest Practices

• The differing interest rates offered by the two weavers’ guilds in Nashik are noteworthy.
• Thaplyal suggests that ¾% per month may have been the usual rate in the Nashik area.
• The guild providing cloth for the monks might have offered a higher rate due to potential compounding of monthly interest and direct supply of their manufactured product.

Inscriptions and Endowments for Buddhist Monks

• An inscription from Nashik, dating back to 258–59 CE during the rule of the Abhira king Ishvarasena, talks about an endowment made by a woman named Vishnudatta. 
• She set up this endowment with four different guilds in the town to ensure the supply of medicines for Buddhist monks residing in the monastery on Trirashmi hill.

Investment Details:

• 1,000 karshapanas with a guild of kularikas (potters)
• 2,000 karshapanas with a guild of odayamtrikas (workers making hydraulic engines, water clocks, etc.)
• An unspecified amount with the guild of tilapishakas (oil-millers)
• 5,000 karshapanas with another guild, whose name is damaged and unreadable
• Investment Strategy: People might have spread their investments across different guilds to mitigate risk in case one of the guilds faced financial difficulties.

Coins and Seals of Guilds

Coins from Taxila: Coins discovered at Taxila from the 3rd/2nd century BCE feature the term negama on the reverse side, written in Brahmi script. The obverse side displays what are believed to be locality names, including Ta(Ra)limata, Dujaka, Dojaka, A(taka?)taka, and Kadare.

Legends on Coins: The legends pamchanekame and hiranasame appear on certain coins. Scholars debate whether these coins were issued by city administrations or guilds.

• Possible Interpretations:
  • Pamchanekame may refer to a corporation of five guilds.
  • Hiranasame could signify an issuer of coined money, possibly a guild of traders responsible for coining money.
• Copper Coins from Kaushambi: Two copper coins from Kaushambi, dated to the 2nd century BCE, bearing the legend gadhikanam are believed to have been issued by a guild of perfumers.
• Coins from Various Cities: Coins from cities like Varanasi, Kaushambi, Vidisha, Erakina (Eran), Ujjayini, and Mahishmati, likely issued by city administrations or influential guilds, reflecting their significance in city governance.

Seals and Sealings with Guild Names

• Found Sites: Seals and sealings featuring terms like nigama or nigamasya have been discovered at sites such as Rajghat, Bhita, Hargaon, Jhusi, and Ahichchhatra.
• Script and Dating: The script on these seals ranges from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE.
• Guild Identifications:
  • Rajghat Sealing: A sealing from Rajghat, dating to the 1st century BCE, displays a svastika symbol and the legend gavayaka (guild of milkmen) in Brahmi letters.
  • Bhita Sealing: A sealing from Bhita, dated to the 2nd century BCE, features the legend shulaphalayikanam, possibly referring to a guild of makers of shulaphala (a type of tool or instrument).

Trade and Traders

During the period from around 300 BCE to 300 CE, trade activity expanded significantly both within the Indian subcontinent and between the subcontinent and other regions. Several factors contributed to this expansion:

• Money Economy: The period witnessed the growth of a money economy, which facilitated trade. The Kushanas and Satavahanas played a crucial role by issuing small denominational coins, making coins more accessible for small-scale transactions.
• Variety of Coins: Literary works from this time mention different types of coins used in trade, including the dinara (gold coin), purana (silver coin), and karshapana (copper coin). In the far south, various coins were in circulation, including northern coins, locally made punch-marked coins, Roman denarii, and die-struck coins issued by local kings such as the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.
• State and Guild Coins: Most coins in ancient India were issued by the state. However, there were instances of city coins and guild coins, indicating some level of local or guild-based currency issuance.
• Barter and Cowrie Shells: Despite the growth of the money economy, barter and the use of cowrie shells (specifically the shell of the Cypraea moneta, found in the Maldives) as a unit of exchange continued alongside money-based transactions.

The Dharmashastra texts provide insights into trade practices, taxes, and interest rates on loans during this period, although they may not fully reflect the actual functioning of trade and markets.

• Price Fixing: The Yajnavalkya Smriti suggests that the king should fix the prices of goods, allowing a 5% profit on indigenous goods and a 10% profit on foreign goods.
• Taxation: The Manu Smriti recommends taxing traders based on their profit rather than their capital outlay, suggesting a 5% tax rate.
• Interest Rates: The interest rates prescribed in these texts are relatively high and vary according to the risk factor and the varna (social class) of the borrower.
• Punishments for Fraud: The texts outline punishments for adulteration, cheating, and fraudulent practices in trade.

The Jatakas, a collection of stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, provide additional context on trade and travel during this period:

• Caravan Journeys: The Jatakas describe long journeys undertaken by caravans, highlighting the means of transportation used by different social classes.
  • Means of Travel: Ordinary people are depicted traveling on foot or by bullock carts, while wealthier individuals traveled in chariots or palanquins.
  • Rest Stops: The Jatakas mention the presence of wells, tanks, and rest houses along roads, providing essential services to weary traders and travelers.
  • City Gates: City gates were closed at night, indicating some level of security and regulation in urban areas.
  • Merchant Partnerships: The Jatakas refer to partnerships among merchants, suggesting collaborative efforts in trade.

Sangam Literature and Trade in Tamilakam

• The Sangam texts provide detailed descriptions of the markets and traders in ancient Tamilakam. They specifically highlight the bustling markets of Puhar and Madurai, where vendors sold a variety of goods including flowers, garlands, aromatic powders, betel leaf, shell bangles, jewellery, cloth, garments, wine, and bronze items.
• The poems also mention the caravans of itinerant traders who transported goods such as paddy, salt, and sometimes pepper to the interior regions, and possibly brought goods from the interior to the ports. These caravans faced challenging journeys, especially those of salt traders ( umanachchattu ), who travelled with their goods loaded on bullock carts, equipped with provisions for sustenance and bows and spears for protection.
• The paravatar, inhabitants of the sea coasts, initially engaged in fishing and producing salt and toddy. Over time, they expanded their activities to include pearl diving and long-distance trade in pearls, chank bangles, tamarind, fish, precious stones, and horses, leading to their prosperity. Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions from this period mention merchants involved in the trade of cloth, salt, oil, ploughshares, gur (unrefined sugar), and gold.

Ancient Travellers and Their Journeys

• In ancient times, people travelled for various reasons, similar to today. Among the travellers were traders, students, teachers, professionals, ascetics, and entertainers. People journeyed to explore new places, visit friends and relatives, start anew, or simply for the adventure and enjoyment of travelling. Moti Chandra has compiled intriguing Jataka stories about travel and travellers, showcasing different aspects of journeys in ancient times.
• One such story involves a horse trader from Uttarapatha who brought 500 horses to Varanasi. The bodhisattva allowed the trader to set a price for his horses. However, the greedy king of Varanasi, hoping to profit, sent his own horse for sale. Unfortunately, the king's horse bit the others, causing their prices to plummet.
• The Darimukha Jataka narrates the tale of Prince Darimukha, who, after completing his education in Taxila, embarked on travels to learn about the customs and manners of people in different regions. He was accompanied by a friend, the son of a royal priest, for companionship during his journey.
• Another Jataka story tells of four sisters who, after their father's death, travelled to various cities engaging in philosophical debates. They carried branches of a jamboline tree with them. Upon arriving in Shravasti, they planted the branches outside the city gates and challenged anyone who dared to uproot them to a public debate.

Trade and Travel in Early Historical India

Jataka Tales and Travel

• The Jataka tales, a collection of stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, provide insights into travel and travelers in early historical India.
• These tales, while not necessarily depicting historical facts, reflect the customs and lifestyles of people during that period.
• For instance, a story about 500 acrobats visiting Rajagriha annually highlights the presence of traveling performers and the love story between a banker’s son and a female acrobat, showcasing the cultural interactions of the time.

Shankha Jataka

• A Brahmana named Shankha, known for his lavish spending, faced financial ruin and decided to turn his fortunes around through trade.
• He constructed a ship, loaded it with goods, and set sail for Suvarnadvipa (Southeast Asia), leaving his relatives behind.

Samuddavanija Jataka

• This tale narrates the plight of 1,000 carpenter families from Varanasi who, after taking an advance for a large furniture order they couldn’t fulfill on time, decided to migrate.
• They built ships and sailed to a bountiful island, rich in fruit trees, rice, and sugarcane fields, where they encountered a shipwrecked passenger living a life of comfort.

Trade Routes

• Trade thrived along various routes, including the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha.
• The Uttarapatha linked Taxila in the northwest with Tamralipti in the Ganga delta, facilitating trade across northern and eastern India.

Important Trade Routes

• Sea route connecting Sindh and Gujarat.
• Route from Rajasthan to the Deccan along the western foothills of the Aravalli hills.
• Route from Mathura through the Chambal valley to Ujjain, then to Mahishmati in the Narmada valley.
• Route from Mahishmati across the Satpura hills and Tapi river, leading to Surat and the Deccan.
• Route connecting Ujjayini in Malwa with Bharukachchha and Supparaka on the western coast.
• Route connecting Kaushambi with Vidisha in eastern Malwa.
• Traditional routes of South India following rivers, including those linking Manmad and Masulipatam, Pune and Kanchipuram, Goa and Tanjavur–Nagapattinam, and Kerala and Cholamandala.

Trade in Northern India

Important Trade Centres:

• Pushkalavati (North-west)
• Patala and Bhrigukachchha (West)
• Tamralipti (East)

Western India Market Towns:

• Paithana (Paithan)
• Tagara (Ter)
• Suppara (So-para)
• Calliena (Kalyan)

Trade Routes:

• Boats from the sea sailing up the Ganga to Pataliputra
• Muziris (Muchiri) as an important port
• Emergence of eastern coast ports in India–Mediterranean maritime trade in late 1st or early 2nd century CE

Trade Goods:

• Cotton Textiles: from the east, west, and far south
• Steel Weapons: from Aparanta (west) and eastern regions
• Horses and Camels: from the north-west
• Elephants: from eastern and southern regions
• Notable Cities and Their Goods:
• Varanasi: silk, fine muslin, sandalwood
• Gandhara: red blankets
• Punjab: woollen textiles
• Kashi: cotton textiles

Textiles of the South: Kanchi and Madurai renowned for fine cotton cloth

Other Trade Goods: horses from the north, pepper

Archaeological Evidence: Provides detailed inventory of trade goods

Long-Distance Trade

• The Indian subcontinent has been part of a larger Indian Ocean world since ancient times. H. P. Ray (2003) proposes a broader perspective on maritime history, focusing on the "social practice of maritime technology." This approach involves examining not just commodities and trade routes but also aspects like boat building, sailing techniques, the organization of shipping, and the communities involved in fishing and sailing, along with traders. It also highlights the close links between maritime activities and the wider political, economic, social, religious, and cultural history.
• During the period of around 200 BCE to 300 CE, long-distance trade thrived, as evidenced by various texts and archaeological findings. Marine archaeology has uncovered significant evidence of ancient coastal cities now submerged by the sea. Excavations at sites like Dwarka and Bet Dwarka off the Gujarat coast, dating back to this period, have revealed remnants of structures, stone images, copper, bronze and brass objects, iron anchors, and a wrecked boat, indicating these sites were geared towards maritime trade.
• The Jatakas, a collection of ancient stories, mention long-distance journeys over land, river, and sea. Indian traders are depicted as reaching places like Suvarnadvipa (Southeast Asia), Ratnadvipa (Sri Lanka), and possibly Baveru (Babylon). Ports on the western coast such as Bharukachchha, Supparaka, and Suvara, as well as eastern coast ports like Karambiya, Gambhira, and Seriva, are also referenced. The Jatakas tell tales of voyages, challenging journeys, and shipwrecks, and mention sailors organized into guilds, led by a figure known as the niyamakjettha.
• Sangam poems from South India describe yavanas (foreigners, possibly Greeks) bringing goods by ship into southern ports. The Coromandel coast, particularly its ports, played a crucial role in trade with Southeast Asia. The port of Kaveripattinam is noted for its diverse merchant population, while another port, Perimula (or Perimuda), possibly located at the mouth of the Vaigai River near Rameswaram, has yielded Roman pottery and coins, along with local imitations of Roman pottery and coins.
• The demand for Chinese silk in the Mediterranean significantly boosted trans-regional and trans-continental trade during this period. The Kushana empire facilitated trade by encompassing sections of the silk routes and providing a degree of safety for traders, along with reducing tariff barriers. The maritime route from the western coast of India to the Persian Gulf, known since proto-historic times, gained importance in the early centuries CE as traders began utilizing the southwest monsoon winds for sailing across the Indian Ocean.

Indian Ships and Boats:

• According to the Jatakas, ancient Indian ships were made of wooden planks and had three masts, rigging, sails, planks, and oars. A large ship's crew included a captain ( shasaka ), a pilot ( niryamaka ), a person in charge of the cutter and ropes, and a water bailer. Indian sailors, like the Phoenicians and Babylonians, used special birds to find land. 
• These birds would fly towards land if it was close or return to the ship if it wasn't. The ancient Greeks noted differences between Indian and Mediterranean boats. Onesicritus, as mentioned by Strabo, said Indian boats were poorly built and had inferior sails, making them less seaworthy. Pliny also commented on Indian boats' unique construction, describing them as suitable for their waters. Indian boats were stitched together with coir rope instead of nails, which helped them withstand strong waves and impacts when landing.

Kaveripattinam in the Pattinapalai

The Pattinapalai, part of the Pattuppattu, offers a vivid depiction of Kaveripattinam, highlighting the bustling trade and idealized lives of merchants.

The city is portrayed as a hub of wealth and abundance, with imports coming from various regions, including swift horses by sea, black pepper by carts, and precious stones, gold, and sweet sandalwood from the Himalayas and Kudda hills. The streets are described as filled with rare and rich imports, showcasing the city's prosperity and the merchants' ethical practices.

Merchants in Kaveripattinam are depicted as living harmoniously, respecting the sea and land, and engaging in fair trade. They are described as being truthful, generous, and devoted to their duties, including offering alms and treating guests with kindness. The idealized image of these merchants reflects their commitment to ethical practices and their role in the city's thriving economy.

SOURCE Chelliah, 1962: 39–40

Trade interactions and networks connecting the Indian subcontinent with central Asia, West Asia, China, Southeast Asia, and Mediterranean Europe involved various commodities apart from Chinese silk. The vast distances over which some goods were transported indicate the participation of multiple groups of traders from different regions.

Trade with East and Southeast Asia

• During the period around 200 BCE to 300 CE, trade contacts between the Indian subcontinent and East and Southeast Asia intensified. The region of Gandhara, due to its proximity to central Asia and the presence of Chinese military garrisons in the Pamirs, attracted the interest of the Han emperors of China. Initially, military and political interests in Gandhara were prominent, but these were eventually surpassed by trade and religious exchanges with the Indian subcontinent, with silk being the dominant commodity in these exchanges.
• The early trade between ancient India and ancient China was facilitated by the great Chinese Silk Route, which connected India with central Asia, West Asia, and Europe. This route spanned approximately 4,350 miles from Loyang on the Yellow River in China to Ctesiphon on the Tigris River in West Asia.

The route from Loyang involved several key points:

• Ch’ang and Tunhuang: Near the source of the Yellow River.
• Northern and Southern Segments: The route bifurcated into northern and southern segments.
• Northern Route: Passed through oases between the northern edge of the Takla Makan desert and the Tienshan mountains, eventually leading through Kokand and Samarkand to the Caspian Sea.
• Southern Route: Went along the southern edge of the Takla Makan desert and the Kunlun mountains, through Bactria, and joined the northern route at Merv in Turkmenistan.

Trade Relations Between China and the West

• In the early centuries CE, coral and glass were prized in China, but there is limited archaeological proof of Roman glassware reaching Chinese shores. Surprisingly, very few Roman artifacts have been discovered in China, possibly due to insufficient archaeological excavations. 
• Fragrances like frankincense and styrax were sourced by the Chinese from Central Asia and later exported westward. These items, along with other goods from China and Central Asia, were brought into India and then shipped westward from ports such as Barygaza and Barbaricon. Central Asia also supplied superior animal hides.

Items Transported from or through India to China

• Pearls
• Coral
• Glass
• Fragrances

Major Chinese Export to India

• Silk

Disruption of Trade (3rd-4th Centuries)

• Trade between China and the West faced disruptions due to political factors during the 3rd and 4th centuries.
• After the Han dynasty’s fall in 220 CE, China was fragmented, except for a brief unification under the Qin dynasty.
• This period also saw the Byzantine empire separating from Rome and the collapse of the Kushana empire.
• Some cities along the Oxus River likely became deserted during this time.
• Despite these disruptions, trade between China and India continued, albeit with changes in trade routes.

Historical Perspectives on India-Southeast Asia Relations

• Indian historians previously viewed India’s relationship with Southeast Asia as a one-sided political and cultural colonization.
• More recent evaluations recognize the mutual links between India and Southeast Asia from a broader and long-term perspective.
• Ancient texts in Sanskrit and Pali mention a land called Suvarnadvipa or Suvarnabhumi, known for its riches, often associated with Southeast Asia.
• The Arthashastra specifically mentions goods like kaleyaka incense and aloeswood from Suvarnabhumi, highlighting its maritime significance.
• The Milindapanha and the Jatakas also refer to Suvarnabhumi in the context of shipping and trade.

Archaeological Evidence of Maritime Links

• Archaeological findings indicate maritime connections between India and Southeast Asia, both coastal and inland, dating back to around 500/400 BCE.
• Indian artifacts such as glass beads, carnelian beads, and etched agate have been discovered in metal age sites across Southeast Asia, dating from 500 BCE to 1500 CE.
• Etched carnelian beads, originating from India, have been found in sites like U Thong and Krabi in Thailand, as well as burials at Don Ta Phet.
• Glass beads of various shapes and colors, some traced to South India, have been unearthed at Southeast Asian sites ranging from 300 BCE to the 17th century CE.

Indo-Roman Trade

Yavanas in Ancient Texts

• The term yavana originally referred to the Greeks in ancient Indian texts but later came to include all foreigners from the west of the subcontinent.
• In Ashoka’s inscriptions, the yavanas are depicted as people living on the northwestern borders of the Maurya empire.
• During the period of c. 200 BCE–300 CE, yavanas are described as ‘westerners’ involved in trade.

Yavanas in Early Tamil Literature

• Early Tamil literature frequently mentions the yavanas, highlighting their involvement in trade.
• Sangam poems describe yavanas’ large ships sailing on the Periyar river, bringing gold and wine while taking cargoes of black pepper.
• A poem in the Pattuppattu compares the noise of weavers in Madurai to that of workers loading and unloading goods from yavana ships at midnight.
• Another poem by Nakkirar mentions the Pandya king Nanmaran drinking perfumed and cold wine brought by the yavanas.

Overview of the Periplus Maris Erythraei

• Ancient Greek and Roman geographers referred to the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf as the Erythraean Sea.
• The Periplus Maris Erythraei is a handbook written in Greek for traders engaged in commerce between Egypt, East Africa, southern Arabia, and India.
• The text provides detailed information on trade in the Indian Ocean, including sailing schedules, routes, ports, and merchandise.

Manuscript History and Authorship

• The Periplus survives in a 10th-century manuscript preserved in Heidelberg, with copies in other locations like the British Museum.
• The manuscript contains errors and omissions, likely due to mistakes by the original copyist and later corrections by another hand.
• Scholars debate the dating of the Periplus, with some suggesting the 3rd century CE, but it is generally believed to date from the mid-1st century CE.
• The author of the Periplus is unknown but is believed to be a Greek living in Egypt, based on his knowledge of Egyptian trees and Roman months.

Author’s Perspective and Style

• The author of the Periplus wrote from personal experience, indicating familiarity with the subjects discussed.
• His writing style is practical and businesslike, lacking literary embellishments, suggesting he was a merchant writing for other merchants.
• The text includes observations on flora and fauna, as well as customs and lifestyles of different peoples, but contains little information about religion.

Trade with the Roman Empire

The exchange between India and the Roman Empire involved a wide range of goods and materials, showcasing the depth and diversity of this ancient trade relationship.

Goods Traded:

• From India to Rome:
• Spices: A variety of spices were among the most sought-after products, including black pepper, which was highly prized in Roman kitchens.
• Textiles: Indian textiles, known for their quality and intricate designs, were in high demand. This included fine cotton and silk fabrics.
• Gems and Jewelry: Precious stones and intricately crafted jewelry were also significant exports.
• Other Goods: Various other items such as ivory, wood products, and medicinal herbs were part of the trade.

From Rome to India:

• Wine: Roman wine, known for its quality, was a popular import.
• Olive Oil: This was another staple import, used for cooking and other purposes.
• Glassware and Pottery: Fine glass and pottery items from Rome were also traded.
• Other Goods: Various other Roman goods, including metalwork and tools, found their way to India.

Trade Dynamics

• The trade was not one-sided; it involved a reciprocal exchange of goods that were valuable in their respective markets.
• Roman Coins in India
• Roman coins were discovered in various parts of India, indicating the extent of trade and the movement of people.
• In regions with established currency systems, such as the Kushana and Satavahana kingdoms, Roman coins were likely melted down for their metal content. 
• In areas with weaker currency systems, like the eastern Deccan, these coins were used as currency. 

Types of Roman Pottery Found in India

• Amphorae: These are jars characterized by their large oval body, narrow neck, and two handles. They were used for storing various goods.
• Terra Sigillata: This is a type of red glazed pottery, decorated by pressing it into a mold. It was once thought to come primarily from Arezzo in Italy but is now recognized as a broader category including wares made in Italy or imitations thereof.

Evidence from Arikamedu

• Location: Arikamedu is situated on the Coromandel coast, near Pondicherry, and was an important site for understanding India's maritime trade links.
• Excavation Findings: The site was occupied from the end of the 1st century BCE to the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, revealing a continuous period of trade and occupation.
• Northern Sector: This area included a brick structure identified as a warehouse, suggesting the storage of goods for trade.
• Southern Sector: Features such as walled courtyards, tanks, and drains were found, which are believed to be associated with the preparation of muslin cloth for export.
• Pottery: Locally produced pottery was found alongside Mediterranean wares, including amphorae and terra sigillata. This indicates a blend of local and foreign goods.
• Other Finds: Over 200 beads made from various materials, a Graeco-Roman gem possibly depicting Emperor Augustus, and a fragment of a Roman lamp were among the notable discoveries.
• Interpretation: Mortimer Wheeler initially identified Arikamedu as Poduke, a trading station mentioned in classical texts, highlighting its significance in ancient trade networks. Recent excavations have provided further insights and revisions to earlier interpretations.

Recent Excavations at Arikamedu

Introduction

Arikamedu, a site on the southeastern coast of India, was excavated again between 1989 and 1992, leading to new discoveries and a reevaluation of previous findings.

Key Findings from Recent Excavations

1. Timing of Settlement

• Earlier research suggested that Arikamedu was established in the 1st century BCE, coinciding with the start of Indo-Roman trade.
• Recent findings indicate that a well-established settlement existed at Arikamedu before the onset of this trade.

2. Division of Sectors

• Previous excavations had identified the northern sector of Arikamedu as a port area and the southern sector as an industrial zone for bead and textile manufacturing.
• New evidence shows that activities were not so clearly divided, and some individuals, likely merchants and sailors, lived in both sectors.

3. Foreign Pottery

• More foreign pottery was discovered in the northernmost part of the settlement.
• This suggests that some foreigners may have lived in this area.

4. Tank-like Structures

• The tank-like structures in the southern sector, previously thought to be used for dyeing cloth, likely served as enclosures for storing food or other goods.

5. Continuation of Trade

• Earlier beliefs held that Indo-Roman trade ceased in the 2nd century CE and Arikamedu was abandoned thereafter.
• Recent excavations suggest that while trade declined, it continued, albeit in reduced capacity, until the 7th century.

6. Later Occupation and Trade Networks

• Coins from the Chola kings, medieval clay lamps, and remains from later periods indicate that Arikamedu was occupied, with some interruptions, until modern times.
• East Asian pottery found at the site points to a shift in trade networks.

7. Roman Amphorae Jars

• Questions remain about what the Roman amphorae jars contained—whether wine, sauce, or olive oil—and who the consumers were—foreign traders, wealthy Indians, or both.

8. Roman Settlements in South India

• Initial interpretations suggested the existence of Roman settlements in South India, but recent studies have challenged this idea.
• It is now believed that the amphorae may have contained wine for local elites rather than for Roman traders living in India.
• Additionally, the Indo-Roman trade involved middlemen from various regions, including Arabs and Greeks from Egypt, rather than being a direct trade between Indians and Romans.

Conclusion

The recent excavations at Arikamedu have provided valuable insights into the nature of the settlement, trade activities, and the involvement of different cultures in the region.

Buddhism and Trade

• Cultural Impact of Trade: Liu's research highlights the links between long-distance trade, urbanization, developments in Buddhist theology, and the spread of Buddhism in China. The demand for relics, images, and ceremonial objects was crucial in sustaining Sino-Indian trade.
• Trade and Cultural Transmission: Ray argues that trade networks between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia were initially dominated by Buddhist trading groups. She suggests that Buddhism spread to Southeast Asia through these trading channels.
• Other Agents of Cultural Transmission: While trade was a significant vehicle for cultural transmission, the activities of Chinese and Indian monks also played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism to China. Additionally, Brahmanical ritual practices in Southeast Asian courts indicate the presence of Brahmana ritual specialists in those courts.
• Varna, Caste, and Gender
• Pillars of Brahmanical Ideology: The four varnas (social classes) and ashramas (stages of life) remained central to Brahmanical ideology, as reflected in the Dharmashastra texts of the period.
• Change in Ashrama Concept: The earlier notion of ashramas as alternative paths was replaced by the idea of them being consecutive stages in life.
• Incorporation of Outsiders: Outsiders, such as the yavanas (often associated with Greek or foreign influences), were integrated into the varna system through the theory of varna-samkara (mixture of varnas).
• Yavanas in Early Texts: In the early Dharmasutras, the yavanas were described as the offspring of Kshatriya men and Shudra women. The Mahabharata offers various accounts of their origins, while the Manu Smriti refers to them as vratya-kshatriyas, Kshatriyas degraded due to their non-performance of sacrificial rituals.
• Tension between Incorporation and Exclusion: These references indicate a tension between social incorporation and exclusion, reflecting the complexities of social dynamics during this period.

Social Identity in Ancient Texts

Social identity in ancient times was closely tied to jati (caste), lineage, and occupation. While the texts do not provide detailed evidence about how caste functioned, they indicate a preference for endogamy (marriage within the same group) and a hereditary aspect to occupations. There are mentions of people from the same profession living in separate areas or distinct parts of settlements.

• Restrictions on Food: The texts primarily focus on restrictions related to giving and accepting food, especially concerning the Brahmanas (at the top of the caste hierarchy) and the Chandalas (considered outside caste society).
• The Manu Smriti and Chandalas: The Manu Smriti provides a more detailed account of Chandalas compared to earlier texts. It emphasizes the complete segregation of this group, stating that Chandalas should live outside the village and be identified by marks when entering. They are considered apapatra, meaning their food should be placed on the ground, and they should not eat from others' dishes.
• Jataka Stories and Social Practice: Jataka stories illustrate the prevailing social practice of untouchability similar to the Manu Smriti. Chandalas are depicted as a despised group living in separate settlements, engaged in tasks like corpse removal, cremation, execution of thieves, sweeping, public performance, hunting, and fruit selling. The extreme prejudice against Chandalas is also reflected in Jaina texts.
• Flexibility within Caste System: Despite the existence of jati or caste distinctions, there are indications of social flexibility. For example, the offspring of unequal unions were sometimes recognized. The Bhaddasala Jataka narrates how King Prasenajit of Kosala initially rejected his wife and son due to their lower status but accepted them again when the Buddha explained the importance of the father's family over the mother's.
• Social Mobility in Stories: Various Jataka stories depict instances of social mobility, such as a prince adopting lower-status vocations like pottery, basket making, floristry, and cooking, or a young man from a noble family becoming an archer. Brahmanas are also shown engaging in trade, hunting, trapping, and farming. However, stories of successful upward mobility from lower-status groups are relatively rare.

Women, Caste and Property

(a) Women, Caste and Household

There was a strong link between caste and the roles and relationships within the household, particularly between men and women. Texts from this time show many seemingly contradictory views about women. For example, the Manu Smriti both praises and criticizes women. Olivelle (2005, 2006) explains that the nature of these statements varies depending on the topic being discussed:

• When discussing how men must guard their wives, women are portrayed as lustful, fickle, hard-hearted, and untrustworthy.
• Conversely, when discussing how men should respect women, they are described as bearers of blessings and as being no less than Shri, the goddess of fortune, within the home.

The Manu Smriti emphasizes the husband’s control over his wife and her property but also states that:

• The wife cannot be sold or repudiated.
• She cannot be treated as chattel because she is obtained from the gods, not from the market like cattle and gold.
• The husband must support his wife in all circumstances, provided she is faithful.

(b) Changing Status of Women

To understand the changing status of women, it is important to look at the broader social and family roles and structures that the Manu Smriti and similar texts promote. During this period:

• The patriarchal nature of the family became stronger, and women were increasingly subordinated.
• Women withdrew from public life, their access to knowledge decreased, and they became more dependent on male relatives.
• There was a growing preference for sons over daughters, and women were pushed further into the domestic sphere.
• Restrictions on women’s sexuality increased, with a strong emphasis on chastity.
• Pre-puberty marriages became a way to ensure chastity.

(c) Women and Property

As per Vijay Nath, the relationship between women and property in Brahmanical texts changed over time, showing women’s declining status from the Rig Veda to later centuries.

(i) Rig Veda to Dharmasutras:

• Early texts showed women had some property rights, but were still subordinate.
• Women had low priority for inherited property in the early Dharmasutras.

(ii) 2nd Century BCE Onwards:

• Law givers began to recognize women’s right to inheritance, but only for stri-dhana.
• Stri-dhana included specific types of gifts, but not inherited property or property acquired through labor.
• Regular property rights continued to follow patrilineal inheritance rules.

(iii) Later Texts:

• Women were treated as items of property, similar to Shudras.
• Their rights to inherit immovable property were limited.

Key Features of Manu Smriti

1. Lifelong Monogamy for Women

• The Manu Smriti promotes the idea that women should remain devoted to their husbands for life.
• It imposes strict rules on widows, advocating for lifelong celibacy and devotion to their deceased husbands.

2. Disapproval of Widow Remarriage

• The text disapproves of widow remarriage, reinforcing the notion that a woman should only be married once.
• This reflects the societal belief that a woman's primary identity and duty are tied to her husband.

3. Paunarbhava Concept

• The Manu Smriti introduces the concept of paunarbhava, referring to a son born to a woman who has remarried after being widowed or abandoned.
• This concept acknowledges the complexities of women's lives but still reinforces traditional family structures.

4. Shift from Temporary Self-Denial to Lifelong Strictures

• Earlier Dharmasutras suggested temporary self-denial for widows.
• The Manu Smriti, however, replaces this with lifelong strictures, emphasizing eternal celibacy and devotion.

5. Celibacy and Devotion after Husband's Death

• The text outlines that a virtuous widow who abides by the rules of celibacy and devotion can attain heaven, even without a son.
• This underscores the importance of a woman's moral conduct and devotion over her ability to bear children.

6. Niyoga (Levirate)

• The Manu Smriti considers niyoga, or levirate, a despicable practice, comparing it to the behavior of animals.
• However, it outlines procedures to be followed if niyoga is deemed necessary, reflecting the complexities of familial obligations.

7. Kshetraja Concept

• A son born out of a niyoga union is recognized as kshetraja, meaning "born of the field," indicating his status as the woman's offspring.

• Overall, the Manu Smriti exhibits a patriarchal mindset, emphasizing strict gender roles and the sanctity of marriage while addressing the realities of women's lives in a constrained manner. 

Philosophical Developments: Astika and Nastika Schools

In ancient cultures, it's challenging to separate philosophy from religion, especially in the context of Indian philosophical traditions. These traditions offered various explanations about the nature of reality and knowledge, but they also had a soteriological aspect, which means they were concerned with paths to salvation or liberation. Over time, many of these philosophical traditions became linked with specific religious practices.

The term for philosophy in India is darshana, which means "view." Another important term is anvikshiki, which originally meant "looking at" but came to signify logical reasoning. Early Indian philosophical schools can be categorized into astika and nastika based on their acceptance of Vedic authority.

Astika Schools

• These schools accepted the authority of the Vedas and later became known as the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy.

Nastika Schools

• These schools, including Buddhist, Jaina, and Charvaka traditions, rejected Vedic authority.
• The early history of Buddhism and Jainism has been discussed in previous chapters, and their later developments will be explored further in this chapter. Other schools, such as the Ajivikas, also continued to thrive during this period.

Charvaka School

• The Charvaka school, also known as Lokayata, derived its name from the idea of "that which is found among people."
• Its teachings are believed to have been contained in a sutra attributed to Brihaspati, although no such text has survived.
• Our understanding of Charvaka comes from references in texts written by rival philosophical schools.

Key Beliefs of Charvaka

• Rejection of Vedic Authority : Charvaka followers rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanas, questioning the efficacy of Vedic rituals and sacrifices.
• Critique of Sacrifice : They challenged the idea that food offered to deceased ancestors could reach them, using this argument to question the logic of long-distance food transfer for hungry travelers.
• Atheism : Charvaka was an atheist school that denied the existence of an eternal soul, rebirth, and the laws of karma and punya (merit).
• Materialist Doctrine : They believed that the body and consciousness were products of combinations of matter, with no spiritual or supernatural components.
• Basis of Knowledge : Charvaka accepted only sensory perception as the basis of knowledge, rejecting abstract or non-empirical forms of understanding.
• Approach to Actions : They dismissed the distinction between good and bad actions, advocating for the enjoyment of life's pleasures.

Later Developments

• Later texts mention two Charvaka sub-schools: Dhurtta and Sushikshita.
• Dhurtta : This group believed in the existence of only the four elements—earth, water, air, and fire. They viewed the body as a combination of atoms and rejected the notion of an eternal soul.
• Sushikshita : This group accepted the idea of a soul distinct from the body, but they believed that the soul was not eternal; it perished along with the body.

The Gita: A Philosophical Overview

• Philosophical Depth: The Gita is a text rich in philosophy, drawing on various concepts like yoga, moksha, karma, and renunciation. It reflects and intertwines different philosophical ideas, presenting them in a new light.
• Varnashrama Dharma: One of the key emphases of the Gita is on fulfilling varnashrama dharma, which refers to the duties and responsibilities associated with one's varna (social class) and ashrama (stage of life).
• Imperishable Atman: The Gita talks about the imperishable nature of the atman (soul) and the irrelevance of death, highlighting the eternal aspect of existence.
• Karma Yoga: A central teaching of the Gita is karma yoga, which advocates for the renunciation of the fruits of actions rather than the actions themselves. It encourages performing duties without attachment to the outcomes.

Conclusions

State Formation and Urbanization

• Between around 200 BCE and 300 CE, state formation and urbanization expanded to more regions of the Indian subcontinent.
• Political structures and chains of command became more visible during this period compared to the earlier Maurya period.

New Governance Traditions

• This era saw the emergence of new governance traditions, including:
• Joint rule, which likely involved sharing power among multiple leaders.
• An increased emphasis on the prestige of the king.
• A system of subordinate rulers who governed regions on behalf of the king.

Bases of Royal Legitimation

• During this period of political change, different bases of royal legitimation became important, such as:
• Patronage of Brahmanas (Brahmin priests) and various religious establishments.
• Performance of Vedic rituals, which were important religious ceremonies in ancient India.

Expansion of Cities and Trade

• There was a notable expansion of cities, specialized crafts, and trade networks during this time.
• The religious sphere also saw significant developments, including doctrinal debates and devotional worship.
• The institutionalization of religious sects became more pronounced, as evidenced by the construction of permanent religious structures.

Cultural Vitality and Patronage

• The emergence of sophisticated sculptural and architectural styles during this period reflects the cultural vitality and versatility of the time.
• Patronage for these artistic endeavors came from pious donations made by various groups of people.
• These groups had access to financial resources and sought validation of their social or political status through their donations.