UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: PSIR Paper 1 (Section- A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Section A

Importantly, Locke emphasized revolution as a last resort, preferring institutional remedies when available. This balanced approach continues to influence modern discourse on legitimate resistance, providing a framework that distinguishes between lawful dissent and justified revolution, as seen in recent scholarly debates on democratic backsliding and authoritarian entrenchment.
John Locke (d) Decline of Liberalism
Ans: Liberalism, once the dominant political philosophy underpinning Western democracies and the post-Cold War international order, has experienced significant challenges in recent years, prompting debates about its decline or transformation.

Ans: The term ‘political’ is multifaceted and cannot be confined solely to formal governance or electoral systems. It broadly refers to the distribution and exercise of power within society and encompasses several layers.
First, the political involves collective decision-making in matters affecting society. A key example is the 2024 global climate negotiations, where various countries and organizations came together to make collective decisions on emission reduction targets and their economic consequences. This reflects political action beyond state governance.
Second, it extends to power relations that permeate every part of life, from the family to the workplace. Feminist scholar Carol Hanisch’s phrase “the personal is political” reflects how gender-based violence or workplace hierarchies reveal power imbalances. The 2023-24 MeToo movements provide an example of how issues previously considered private became political as they challenge entrenched power structures.
Third, the political involves disputes over values and identity. Educational debates in India in 2023-24 over curriculum content and national identity highlight how ideas about history and culture become political. Similarly, the 2024 debate on AI regulation reflected political struggles between innovation and privacy concerns.
Fourth, the political involves discursive power, where framing an issue shapes how it is addressed. In 2023, the discourse around climate change shifted from an environmental concern to a national security issue, influencing resource allocation and policy priorities.
Finally, the political is also reflected in institutional design, such as the 2024 constitutional reforms in various countries, which structurally alter how power is distributed and exercised within the state.
In sum, the political is an overarching concept that spans beyond governance and permeates all levels of social interaction where power is exercised, contested, or negotiated.

(b) Marxism is a political theory of action demanding strict compliance with its core principles. Comment. (15 Marks)
Ans: Marxism, initially articulated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, is often regarded as a theory of revolutionary change rooted in the analysis of capitalist society. The assertion that Marxism demands "strict compliance" with its core principles warrants a deeper examination, as the theory’s application has been both doctrinal and flexible, evolving with historical developments.
At its core, classical Marxism posits that class struggle is the engine of history, with the capitalist system inevitably collapsing due to its internal contradictions. Marx’s materialist conception of history and his analysis of capitalist exploitation formed the foundation of this theory, emphasizing the necessity of revolutionary action to overthrow capitalism. For instance, in 2023, some orthodox Marxist movements in the Global South focused on class-based organizing, highlighting the ongoing relevance of Marxist principles in resisting imperialism and economic inequality.
However, Marxism has shown remarkable theoretical flexibility. Lenin adapted Marxism to the Russian context, while Gramsci’s focus on cultural hegemony broadened the theory to include non-economic factors such as ideology and culture. Moreover, the Frankfurt School incorporated psychological dimensions, while contemporary eco-socialist movements, particularly in 2024, combined Marxist critiques of capitalism with environmental concerns—an evolution Marx himself did not envision.
Furthermore, modern Marxist scholars increasingly reject strict doctrinal adherence, recognizing that Marx’s 19th-century analysis needs to be updated to address contemporary issues such as digital capitalism and automation. The rise of digital platforms and the gig economy, for instance, has led to new forms of exploitation that Marxist frameworks can still analyze, but with necessary adjustments.
In political practice, Marxist movements have oscillated between doctrinal purity and pragmatism. While some communist regimes in the 20th century demanded strict compliance, contemporary Marxist-influenced movements tend to adopt more pragmatic strategies, seeking to balance Marxist analysis with real-world policy compromises, as evidenced by the electoral successes of left-wing parties in Latin America in 2023-24.
Thus, while Marxism remains foundational in its critique of capitalism, it is not a rigid dogma. It is a dynamic and evolving framework that continues to engage with changing economic and social realities, allowing for the adaptation of its core principles without strict adherence to outdated interpretations.

(c) The nature of relationship between equality of democratic citizenship and liberty of citizens is influenced by economic equality. Comment. (15 Marks)
Ans: The relationship between democratic citizenship equality, individual liberty, and economic equality is a fundamental issue in political theory. While formal democratic systems guarantee equal rights and liberties, economic disparities often shape the lived experience of these rights, undermining both equality and liberty.
Democratic citizenship equality entails equal voting rights, equal protection under the law, and equal opportunities for political participation. In theory, these guarantees ensure that every citizen has the same opportunity to exercise their rights and participate in the democratic process. However, economic inequality creates power imbalances that distort this equality. Wealthy individuals and corporations often have disproportionate influence on political outcomes through campaign donations and lobbying, which can erode the political equality of disadvantaged groups. For example, the 2023 studies on campaign finance in the US showed how the affluent few dominate policy decisions, undermining the principle of political equality.
Economic inequality also impacts individual liberty. While formal rights might be equally distributed, the substantive exercise of liberties is often constrained by economic conditions. For example, in 2023, the global pandemic revealed that those with lower incomes were more likely to face limited access to healthcare, despite having equal rights to it. Similarly, educational access often depends on economic resources, meaning that poorer citizens are unable to fully exercise their liberty to pursue education or personal development.
Moreover, economic inequality influences how liberty is conceptualized. While wealthier groups may see liberty as freedom from government interference, economically disadvantaged groups often prioritize redistributive policies that can provide them with the resources to live a meaningful life. The 2023-24 debates in various democracies highlighted these divergent views, where economically disadvantaged groups increasingly see liberty as intertwined with equality.
Political philosophers offer differing views on how to resolve these tensions. John Rawls, for instance, argues that economic inequalities are only justified if they benefit the least advantaged. Conversely, libertarians like Robert Nozick prioritize procedural fairness over distributive justice, emphasizing that liberty is best protected by limiting state intervention in the economy.
In conclusion, economic inequality significantly impacts the relationship between democratic equality and liberty. Reducing economic disparities is key to ensuring that both equality and liberty are meaningfully realized for all citizens. Programs such as universal basic income or social safety nets are attempts to address this issue by providing a material basis for effective democratic participation and liberty, helping to bridge the gap between formal equality and actual freedom.

Q3:
(a) The debate on human rights is caught between the limitations of both universalism and cultural relativism. Comment. (20 Marks)
Ans: The debate around human rights often swings between two views—universalism and cultural relativism. Both have strengths, but also serious limitations.

• Universalism says that some rights apply to all humans everywhere, simply because of their dignity. This view is reflected in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recent efforts by the UN Human Rights Council in areas like digital privacy and humanitarian interventions.
• However, critics argue that universalism often reflects Western liberal values, ignoring local cultures. In recent global debates, such as those over foreign interventions, universalist arguments have been accused of serving political interests rather than protecting people.
• Cultural relativism, on the other hand, stresses that rights and morals depend on cultural contexts. It supports recognizing local traditions, such as indigenous governance systems or region-specific human rights frameworks.
  
• But this view can also justify harmful practices in the name of tradition. For example, some countries have limited women’s or minority rights by invoking “traditional values.” Relativism can also falsely assume that cultures are unchanging and unified, ignoring internal debates.

Newer approaches try to move beyond this binary:

• The idea of “vernacularization” helps translate universal rights into local languages and values.
• “Minimal universalism” supports a basic set of core rights while allowing cultural flexibility in how they’re applied.
• Principles like subsidiarity and cross-cultural dialogue aim to make rights both inclusive and effective.

In conclusion, effective human rights protection today depends not on choosing between universalism or relativism, but on inclusive, respectful dialogue that balances global principles with local realities.

(b) Deliberative democracy seeks to promote democratic decision making about public issues among the citizens. Discuss. (15 Marks)
Ans: Deliberative democracy is a model of governance where decisions are made through open and reasoned discussions among citizens, not just by voting.

• It is based on the idea that everyone affected by a decision should have a fair chance to speak and be heard.
• Thinkers like Habermas and Mansbridge argue that decisions should come from giving reasons, listening, and aiming for the common good.

In practice:

• Citizens’ assemblies in countries like Ireland and France (2023) showed how people can discuss complex issues like climate change when given information and a structured space.
• Digital platforms introduced in Europe (2024) allowed more people to participate across locations. These platforms used moderation tools and fact checks to maintain quality.

Deliberative democracy is especially useful in divided societies:

• In post-conflict settings, forums helped build understanding even without full agreement.
• In Brazil, participatory budgeting helped poor communities take part in spending decisions.

But there are challenges:

• Studies show that not all groups participate equally, especially the poor or less educated.
• In multicultural societies, deliberative norms may clash with different styles of communication.
• Scaling up such forums to national levels and connecting them to formal politics is also difficult.

Still, deliberative democracy is a powerful tool for deepening democratic engagement, improving policy, and rebuilding trust in institutions.

(c) Dharmashastra presents a duty-centric worldview for individuals and communities. Comment. (15 Marks)
Ans: Dharmashastra, the ancient Indian tradition of dharma, is based on the idea of duty (kartavya), not individual rights. It gives more importance to what people should do rather than what they can claim.

• It assigns duties based on one’s varna (class), ashrama (stage of life), and role in society.
• This creates a contextual and relational ethics—people are expected to fulfill their responsibilities in specific relationships.

Recent examples:

• Studies in rural India (2023) showed that people often solve disputes by focusing on mutual duties rather than individual rights.
• Research on environmental ethics (2024) found that communities protect nature out of a sense of duty, not legal rights.

Dharmashastra is flexible—it adjusts duties based on time (kala), place (desa), and capacity (patra). This is different from the universal rules found in Western traditions.
It also mixes religious, ethical, and legal duties:

• In Hindu personal law reforms, courts have struggled to balance dharmic ideas with modern legal principles.
• Environmental campaigns have revived dharmic duties to nature, linking ethics with spirituality.

In modern times:

• Corporate social responsibility and public health drives have used dharmic duty appeals to inspire action.
• But critics argue that these ideas have supported gender and caste hierarchies in the past.

Today, many scholars suggest rethinking Dharmashastra—preserving its focus on duty while removing inequality. It remains a powerful framework for social responsibility and ethics, offering an alternative to purely rights-based thinking.

Q4: 
(a) Legitimacy adds positive value to political authority and obligation. Discuss. (20 Marks)
Ans: Legitimacy is what gives moral weight to political authority. It’s not just about having legal power but about being widely accepted as rightful by the people. When authority is seen as legitimate, citizens feel morally obliged to obey, and not just forced to comply.

• In a democracy like India, legitimacy mainly comes from elections and constitutional procedures. People follow laws because they believe in the fairness of the system—not out of fear.
• For example, during India’s 2020 COVID-19 lockdown, many citizens cooperated even without strict enforcement. This reflected their belief in the state’s intentions and authority.

Legitimacy adds value to governance in multiple ways:

• It reduces the need for coercion, as people follow rules voluntarily.
• It leads to stronger institutions—courts, election commissions, and audit bodies function better when viewed as neutral and fair.
• It encourages civic participation and trust in public processes.

Legitimacy also ensures political stability. Even if leaders change, the system continues because people respect the office, not just the person. In contrast, authoritarian regimes often lose control once their coercive methods fail—as seen in Myanmar’s post-2021 protests.
Thinkers like Max Weber explained legitimacy as:

• Traditional (based on customs),
• Charismatic (based on a leader’s personal appeal),
• Legal-rational (based on laws and procedures), which is most relevant today.

However, legitimacy is not permanent. It can decline if the state becomes unjust or unaccountable. Public protests—such as those against farm laws in India—show that legitimacy depends on inclusive and fair governance.
Hence, legitimacy plays a vital role in turning authority into a shared responsibility, making governance more stable, just, and participatory.

(b) Critically examine Plato’s Theory of Forms. (15 Marks)
Ans: Plato’s Theory of Forms says that everything we see in the physical world is just an imperfect version of a perfect and unchanging reality. These perfect versions, or Forms, exist in a higher, non-material realm. For example, every tree we see is just a copy of the ideal Form of a Tree.

• According to Plato, true knowledge is not about physical objects but about understanding these unchanging Forms.
• In The Republic, he explains this idea using the Allegory of the Cave, where people only see shadows of reality until they discover the world of truth outside.

This theory shaped Western metaphysics and idealism, influencing thinkers like Augustine and Descartes. It draws a line between appearance and reality, suggesting that true understanding comes from rational thinking, not senses.
But the theory also faces major criticisms:

• Aristotle, Plato’s student, questioned the need for a separate realm of Forms. He believed the essence exists within objects, not outside them.
• The idea of how objects “participate” in their Forms is unclear and abstract.
• It lacks empirical proof, making it hard to test or apply practically.

Still, the theory remains influential. Ideas like justice, equality, and human rights are rooted in abstract ideals—similar to Plato’s Forms. Modern legal and ethical debates often seek universal standards, echoing his vision.
Though not scientifically verifiable, Plato’s theory provides a powerful framework for thinking about higher values and universal truths beyond the visible world.

(c) Manabendra Nath Roy’s political thought highlighted the humanistic aspects of Marxism. Discuss. (15 Marks)
Ans: Manabendra Nath Roy was a revolutionary who moved beyond orthodox Marxism to develop a more human-centered approach. While he agreed with Marx’s ideas on class and history, he believed traditional Marxism ignored human freedom, ethics, and rationality.

• After being disillusioned with Stalinist authoritarianism, Roy developed Radical Humanism—a philosophy combining Marxist insights with democratic values.
• He saw people not just as class actors but as ethical and rational individuals capable of making moral choices.

Key ideas of Roy’s thought:

• He rejected the idea of a vanguard party and proposed party-less democracy, where power would be decentralized, and people would govern themselves.
• He supported planned development but believed it must be guided by ethical and humanistic values.
• Roy emphasized scientific temper, individual dignity, and participatory governance.

His ideas are highly relevant today:

• In the age of mass surveillance and data control, Roy’s concerns about liberty and ethics remain important.
• For example, debates on AI and digital governance today involve the same balance between collective control and individual freedom.

Roy’s version of socialism promotes a humane, ethical, and democratic alternative to both capitalist individualism and authoritarian socialism. His work revives Marxism’s moral core and adapts it to modern political and social challenges.