UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: Agriculture Paper 1 (Section- B) | Agriculture Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Q5: 
Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 × 5 = 50 marks)
(a) Write down the principles involved in Integrated Watershed Management. Briefly discuss the relevance of Integrated Watershed Management under climate change scenario.
Ans: Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) is a holistic approach to the sustainable development and management of natural resources like land, water, and vegetation within a watershed. It aims to improve agricultural productivity, conserve ecosystems, and enhance livelihoods, particularly in rainfed and resource-deprived areas.

Principles of Integrated Watershed Management

1. Holistic Approach: IWM considers the entire watershed as a single management unit rather than fragmented plots, focusing on inter-linkages between soil, water, land use, and vegetation.
2. Participatory Planning and Implementation: Involvement of local communities, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), and self-help groups ensures sustainable and need-based solutions.
3. Equity and Gender Sensitivity: Ensures equitable distribution of resources and participation from marginalized groups and women.
4. Sustainable Natural Resource Management: Emphasis on soil conservation, water harvesting, afforestation, and biodiversity protection.
5. Convergence and Coordination: Collaboration between government departments, NGOs, and stakeholders for optimal resource use.
6. Capacity Building: Training local communities for resource monitoring, planning, and maintenance.

Relevance under Climate Change Scenario

1. Climate Resilience: IWM helps in building resilience against erratic rainfall, droughts, and floods by improving water retention and groundwater recharge.
2. Carbon Sequestration: Vegetative cover from afforestation and agroforestry aids in reducing atmospheric CO₂ levels.
3. Adaptation Strategy: Encourages crop diversification, improved irrigation, and integrated farming systems suitable for changing climates.
4. Risk Reduction: Reduces soil erosion, water scarcity, and land degradation — all exacerbated by climate change.
5. Livelihood Security: Enhances agricultural productivity and employment opportunities, reducing climate-related migration.

Examples

• Sukhomajri Watershed Project (Haryana) and Ralegan Siddhi (Maharashtra) are classic examples of successful watershed management improving ecology and livelihoods.
• IWMP (Integrated Watershed Management Programme) in India has been merged under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) to promote micro-irrigation and water use efficiency.
  

Integrated Watershed Management is a proven, sustainable solution for resource conservation and livelihood enhancement. Under the looming threat of climate change, its role becomes even more significant, making it essential for rural development, agricultural stability, and environmental protection.

(b) Explain the term irrigation scheduling. Elaborate the criteria IW/CPE ratio of irrigation scheduling along with its merits and demerits.
Ans: Irrigation scheduling refers to the decision-making process of determining when and how much water to apply to crops to meet their water needs for optimal growth and yield. It is a crucial component of efficient water management, especially in water-scarce regions, ensuring better resource use and higher productivity.

IW/CPE Ratio: An Important Criterion

• IW (Irrigation Water): Depth of irrigation water applied in mm.
• CPE (Cumulative Pan Evaporation): Total water evaporated from the Class A pan evaporimeter since the last irrigation.
• IW/CPE Ratio = Depth of irrigation water (mm) / Cumulative pan evaporation (mm)

Common Ratios

• For wheat: 0.9 – 1.0
• For groundnut: 0.6 – 0.8
• For sorghum: 0.8 – 1.0

Merits of IW/CPE Ratio

1. Scientific Scheduling: Uses climatic data, making it objective and data-driven.
2. Water-Saving: Avoids over-irrigation, conserving water and reducing costs.
3. Improved Crop Yield: Timely irrigation supports healthy crop growth.
4. Simplicity: Once the ratio is known, it is easy to apply using basic pan data.

Demerits of IW/CPE Ratio

1. Not Crop-Specific: Doesn’t directly consider root depth or crop growth stage.
2. Pan Location Sensitive: Results can vary depending on pan placement (shaded or open).
3. Unsuitable in Rainy Periods: Pan data may not reflect effective rainfall.

Example
If wheat has an IW/CPE ratio of 0.9 and pan evaporation reaches 60 mm, then irrigation is scheduled after:

• IW = 60 × 0.9 = 54 mm of water is applied.

Irrigation scheduling based on the IW/CPE ratio is a valuable method for optimizing irrigation in agriculture. It helps balance crop water requirements with environmental sustainability and is particularly useful in areas facing water scarcity and variable climate conditions.

(c) Briefly discuss the price instability and its types. Write down the measurements for price instability.
Ans: Price instability refers to frequent and unpredictable changes in the prices of agricultural commodities over time. It is a significant challenge in agriculture that affects both producers and consumers, particularly in developing economies like India.

Types of Price Instability

1. Seasonal Instability: Prices fluctuate due to harvesting and off-season cycles (e.g., tomato prices fall during glut season).
2. Annual Instability: Caused by variation in monsoons, pest attacks, or global demand (e.g., onion prices spike due to poor monsoon).
3. Cyclical Instability: Linked to longer-term economic cycles affecting agricultural investment and output.
4. Random/Irregular Instability: Caused by unexpected shocks like war, policy changes, or pandemics.

Measurements for Price Instability

1. Coefficient of Variation (CV): Standard deviation divided by mean price; higher CV means more instability.
2. Instability Index (Cuddy-Della Valle Index): Adjusts CV to account for time trends, giving more accurate instability measures.
3. Moving Averages: Used to smooth short-term price fluctuations to study trends.
4. Price Spread Analysis: Examines variation between farm gate price and consumer price to understand volatility.

Examples

• The onion crisis of 2019 in India saw prices rise from ₹20 to ₹150/kg in a few weeks.
• In cotton, global demand and subsidy policies create cyclical instability.

Price instability is a serious concern for agricultural sustainability, income security, and consumer welfare. Accurate measurement and effective market interventions such as MSP, buffer stocks, and export-import regulation are essential to manage it efficiently.

(d) Give the account of new tools and methods used in agricultural extension.
Ans: Agricultural extension has evolved from traditional farm visits and pamphlets to advanced digital tools and participatory methods. These innovations are crucial for disseminating information rapidly, especially to small and marginal farmers.

Modern Tools in Agricultural Extension

1. Mobile Applications: Apps like Kisan Suvidha, IFFCO Kisan, and mKisan offer weather forecasts, market prices, and agronomy tips.
2. ICT and e-Extension: Use of e-Choupal, Digital Green, and Kisan Call Centres for real-time problem solving and knowledge sharing.
3. Remote Sensing and GIS: Extension workers use satellite-based data for crop health monitoring and advisory services.
4. Social Media: Platforms like YouTube, WhatsApp groups, and Facebook pages are used to share videos and best practices.
5. Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): Serve as knowledge hubs and provide collective bargaining power and extension support.
6. Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs): Act as frontline agricultural technology transfer institutions in every district.

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Modern Extension Methods

1. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Involves farmers in identifying problems and solutions, making interventions more relevant.
2. Demonstration Farms: On-farm trials and field demonstrations to showcase new technology.
3. Video-based Extension: Farmer-to-farmer learning through low-cost videos in local languages.

The integration of ICT tools, participatory methods, and grassroots-level institutions has transformed agricultural extension, making it more accessible, efficient, and responsive to farmers' needs in the digital age.

(e) It is proposed to give four (4) irrigations to six (6) hectare area of wheat crop. Depth of each irrigation is 60 mm, which will be given with a pump of discharge @ 5 litre/second. Find out the duration (in days) of pump operation to discharge the required quantity of water.
Ans: Given Data:

• Number of irrigations = 4
• Area = 6 hectares
• Depth per irrigation = 60 mm = 0.06 m
• Total depth = 4 × 0.06 = 0.24 m
• Pump discharge = 5 litres/sec = 0.005 m³/sec

Step 1: Total Volume of Water Required

• Area in m² = 6 hectares = 60,000 m²
• Volume = Area × Depth = 60,000 × 0.24 = 14,400 m³

Step 2: Calculate Total Time Required

• Discharge = 0.005 m³/sec
• Time (in seconds) = Volume / Discharge
  = 14,400 / 0.005 = 2,880,000 seconds

Step 3: Convert Seconds into Days

• 1 day = 86400 seconds
• Time in days = 2,880,000 / 86,400 = 33.33 days

To irrigate a 6-hectare wheat field with 4 irrigations of 60 mm depth each, using a pump with a discharge rate of 5 litres/second, the total duration of pump operation required is approximately 33.33 days (or 800 hours). Efficient water scheduling and time management are vital for minimizing energy and water use.

Q6: 
(a) Briefly discuss the crop management practices for stabilising yield in dryland areas. Enlist the crops with their characteristics suitable for dryland agriculture. (20 marks)
Ans: Dryland agriculture refers to crop cultivation in areas receiving less than 750 mm of annual rainfall, often prone to erratic monsoons, prolonged dry spells, and poor soil fertility. Stabilising yields under such conditions requires strategic crop management practices that improve water-use efficiency, conserve soil moisture, and enhance resilience against climatic stress.

Crop Management Practices for Yield Stabilization in Dryland Areas
Selection of Suitable Crops and Varieties

• Use of drought-tolerant and early-maturing crops that escape terminal drought.
• Varieties with deep roots and quick growth (e.g., Pearl millet hybrid HHB-67).

Timely Sowing

• Sowing immediately after the first effective monsoon rain helps in better crop establishment and maximises the use of available moisture.

Moisture Conservation Techniques

• Mulching, contour bunding, tied ridging, and compartmental bunding help reduce water runoff and increase infiltration.
• Application of organic matter improves water-holding capacity of soil.

Intercropping and Crop Rotation

• Intercropping ensures crop diversification and risk reduction.
  Examples: Sorghum + Pigeon pea, Pearl millet + Cowpea.
• Crop rotation improves soil fertility and pest control.

Use of Antitranspirants and Mulches

• Spraying substances like Kaolin reduces water loss.
• Organic mulches (straw, leaves) maintain soil moisture.

Nutrient Management

• Use of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)—combining FYM, compost, and biofertilizers with chemical fertilizers.
• Helps in long-term fertility and productivity.

Weed and Pest Management

• Timely weeding ensures effective use of limited water and nutrients.
• Use of resistant crop varieties reduces loss due to pest outbreaks.

Contingency Crop Planning

• Based on rainfall onset/delay, farmers shift to shorter-duration or alternative crops.
• Example: From soybean to sunflower if rains are delayed.

Crops and Their Characteristics Suitable for Dryland Agriculture

Stabilising yield in dryland farming requires integration of moisture conservation, adaptive crop selection, and low-input sustainable practices. Crops like sorghum, millet, and pulses have evolved to thrive under water-scarce conditions and offer a viable solution to food and livelihood security in these regions.

(b) Discuss the changes in irrigated area through different sources of irrigation in India since independence. Classify the irrigation projects based on cultivable command area, purpose served and financial return. (20 marks)
Ans: Irrigation is a critical input for enhancing agricultural productivity. Since independence, India has significantly expanded its irrigated area through the development of various sources such as canals, tube wells, tanks, and micro-irrigation systems. This expansion has played a key role in achieving self-sufficiency in food production.

Changes in Irrigated Area Since Independence
Canal Irrigation

• Major source during pre-independence era.
• Large-scale canal projects like Bhakra-Nangal, Indira Gandhi Canal were initiated post-independence.
• Share declined from ~40% in 1950s to ~24% in recent years due to maintenance issues and inefficiency.

Tube Wells and Bore Wells

• Emerged as the dominant irrigation source in Green Revolution areas.
• Account for over 50% of irrigated area, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Ease of access, individual control made them popular.

Tanks and Surface Storage

• Traditional source in peninsular India.
• Declined due to siltation and lack of maintenance, but revival efforts under government schemes are ongoing.

Micro-Irrigation

• Gained momentum under schemes like PMKSY.
• Drip and sprinkler irrigation have improved water-use efficiency, especially in horticulture and water-scarce regions.

Classification of Irrigation Projects
1. Based on Cultivable Command Area (CCA)

2. Based on Purpose Served

3. Based on Financial Return

India's irrigation expansion journey reflects a shift from public canal systems to private tube wells and water-saving micro-irrigation. Classifying irrigation projects based on area, purpose, and return helps guide policy planning and investment for agricultural sustainability.

(c) Describe the five steps of effective extension education process as per Leagans (1967). (10 marks)
Ans: 

Extension education is a purposeful learning activity aimed at bringing positive behavioral change among rural people. As per Leagans (1967), an effective extension process involves five structured steps that ensure systematic planning and impact.

Five Steps of Extension Education Process
Situation Analysis

• Assessment of needs, problems, and resources of the target community.
  Tools: baseline surveys, PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal).
  Example: Identifying that farmers lack awareness of pest-resistant varieties.

Objective Setting

• Based on the analysis, define SMART objectives (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-bound).
  Example: “Train 50 farmers on integrated pest management within 3 months.”

Teaching Plan and Method Selection

• Development of content and choosing suitable communication tools (e.g., demonstrations, flip charts, mobile apps).
• Tailored to the audience’s literacy level and cultural background.

Execution (Teaching)

• Delivering the content through selected methods.
• Encourages interaction, feedback, and participation.
  Example: Conducting on-field demonstrations on drip irrigation.

Evaluation and Reconsideration

• Assess the outcomes (knowledge gain, adoption of technology, attitude change).
• Modify future programs based on feedback and impact.
  Tools: surveys, interviews, result measurements.

Leagans' extension model ensures that rural education is relevant, participatory, and impactful. Each step builds on the previous one, promoting a cycle of continuous improvement and sustainable knowledge transfer in agriculture.

Q7: 
(a) Discuss the chronological developments of National Extension System of India after independence. (20 marks)
Ans: After independence, India recognized the need for a strong extension system to support agricultural development and rural upliftment. Over the years, several landmark programs and institutional reforms shaped the National Extension System.

• 1952 – Community Development Programme (CDP): Launched as a multi-sectoral rural development initiative covering agriculture, health, education, and infrastructure. It focused on community participation but lacked specialized extension support for agriculture.

• 1953 – National Extension Service (NES): Implemented as a follow-up to CDP, creating a permanent extension structure. It included technical personnel at block, district, and state levels to disseminate agricultural knowledge.

• 1960 – Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP): Initiated with U.S. support in selected districts, focusing on intensive input supply, extension services, and credit for high-yielding varieties. It laid the foundation for future extension reforms.

• 1966 – High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP): Introduced during the Green Revolution, it emphasized strong extension support to promote HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation in selected regions.

• 1974 – Training and Visit (T&V) System: Launched with World Bank assistance, the T&V system professionalized extension through scheduled visits by trained workers. Though structured, it faced criticism for top-down communication and lack of farmer feedback.

• 1982 – Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs): Initiated by ICAR as district-level institutions to conduct on-farm trials, vocational training, and frontline demonstrations. KVKs brought location-specific technologies to farmers.

• 1998 – Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA): Introduced under the NATP project, ATMA decentralized extension services at the district level, involving farmers and NGOs in planning and execution. It promoted a demand-driven and participatory approach.

• 2005 onwards – National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A): Digital platforms like mKisan and eNAM were introduced to provide farmers access to advisories, weather data, and market prices via ICT tools.

Recent Initiatives:

• Farmers’ FIRST programme (2016): Encourages direct farmer–scientist interface.
• Digital Extension through apps and social media: Expanding outreach through Kisan Call Centers, YouTube, and WhatsApp.

India’s extension system evolved from centralized command structures to more participatory, ICT-driven, and location-specific models. Despite challenges, it has contributed significantly to increasing agricultural productivity and technology dissemination.

(b) Briefly discuss the decisions involved in Farm management. Write down the principles applied in Farm management. (20 marks)
Ans: Farm management involves strategic and operational decisions to optimize the use of land, labor, capital, and technology for profitable and sustainable farming. These decisions are critical in both subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Major Decisions in Farm Management:
What to Produce:

• Based on resource availability, market demand, climatic suitability, and profitability.
  Example: Choosing between cash crops like cotton vs. food crops like wheat.

How Much to Produce:

• Involves assessing resource constraints like water, capital, and labor.
• Depends on farm size, expected prices, and risk factors.

How to Produce:

• Decision regarding techniques, machinery, fertilizers, irrigation, and labor use.
• Involves choice between traditional vs. modern practices.

• Where to Sell and When:

  • Involves marketing decisions, storage options, and price forecasting.

  • Strategic selling improves income.

How to Finance:

• Decisions on credit source: institutional (banks, cooperatives) or non-institutional.
• Affects investment in seeds, irrigation, machinery.

Risk and Uncertainty Management:

• Crop insurance, diversification, and buffer stock maintenance to mitigate crop failure or price crash.

Principles of Farm Management:
Principle of Factor Substitution:

• Inputs can be substituted to maximize output.
  Example: Replacing human labor with machinery to reduce costs.

Principle of Opportunity Cost:

• The cost of foregone alternatives should be considered.
• Helps in choosing the most profitable enterprise.

Principle of Diminishing Returns:

• Beyond a certain point, increasing one input while keeping others constant leads to reduced marginal returns.

Principle of Equi-Marginal Returns:

• Resources should be allocated such that the marginal value product of all inputs is equal.

Principle of Comparative Advantage:

• Farm should specialize in crops where it has higher productivity or lower cost compared to others.

Principle of Time Comparison:

• Evaluates long-term vs. short-term profitability before investing in capital-intensive assets.

Effective farm management ensures optimal resource use, minimizes risk, and enhances income. Applying these principles leads to better planning and increased efficiency in both small and large-scale farming.

(c) Justify the statement that Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is playing vital role in solving location specific problems and transfer of technologies in agriculture. (10 marks)
Ans: Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) are frontline agricultural extension institutions established by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the district level. They serve as the link between research institutions and farmers by addressing location-specific problems and disseminating appropriate technologies.

Role of KVKs in Solving Location-Specific Problems:
On-Farm Testing (OFT):

• KVKs test new varieties and practices in farmers’ fields to assess suitability before wider recommendation.
  Example: Drought-resistant paddy varieties in Eastern India.

Frontline Demonstrations (FLDs):

• Showcase successful technologies directly to farmers under real field conditions.
• Promotes adoption of improved seed varieties, IPM, INM, and farm machinery.

Need-Based Training:

• Farmers, farm women, and rural youth are trained in improved practices like protected cultivation, dairy, and fisheries.
• Trainings are practical, seasonal, and relevant.

Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR):

• Adapts technology based on socio-economic and agro-climatic conditions.
  Example: Customizing fertilizer application methods for tribal areas.

Advisory Services and Mobile Outreach:

• KVKs provide agro-advisories through visits, mobile apps, WhatsApp, and call centers.
• Real-time solutions for pest outbreaks and crop failure.

Seed and Input Production:

• Act as hubs for quality seed and planting material production of improved varieties.

Linking Farmers with Institutions:

• Facilitate access to banks, insurance, FPOs, and market linkages.

KVKs act as decentralized innovation centers ensuring last-mile delivery of agricultural research. Their role is crucial in improving productivity, income, and resilience in India's diverse agro-climatic regions.

Q8:
(a) Explain different types of farming. Discuss the factors affecting types of farming. (20 marks)
Ans: Farming is a primary activity that varies greatly based on geography, climate, socio-economic conditions, and cultural practices. Different types of farming systems have evolved to suit regional characteristics and resource availability. Understanding these systems is essential for efficient resource utilization and sustainable agriculture.

Types of Farming in India and Globally:
Subsistence Farming

• Practiced by small and marginal farmers to meet household needs.
• Low capital and technology input; examples include parts of Eastern UP, Bihar, and Jharkhand.

Commercial Farming

• Market-oriented with focus on cash crops like sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds.
• High input use (machinery, irrigation, fertilizers); prevalent in Punjab, Maharashtra.

Mixed Farming

• Combination of crop cultivation and livestock rearing on the same farm.
• Ensures diversified income and resource recycling.

Shifting Cultivation

• Practiced in hilly and forested areas (e.g., North-East India – Jhum farming).
• Land is cleared, cultivated for a few years, and then left fallow.

Plantation Farming

• Large-scale farming of a single crop like tea, coffee, rubber, or coconut.
• Common in Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu.

Organic Farming

• Avoids synthetic inputs; relies on compost, green manure, and biopesticides.
• Promotes ecological balance and soil health.

Dryland and Rainfed Farming

• Practiced in low rainfall areas (e.g., Rajasthan, Telangana).
• Crops like millets, pulses, and oilseeds are grown using moisture-conserving techniques.

Precision and Hi-tech Farming

• Uses ICT, GPS, drones, and sensors for optimizing inputs.
• Emerging in developed regions and large corporate farms.

Factors Affecting Types of Farming:

1. Climate and Rainfall: Determines crop choice and method of farming. Rice in high rainfall areas; millets in drylands.
2. Soil Type: Black soil favors cotton; alluvial soil supports wheat and sugarcane.
3. Topography: Hilly terrain supports terrace and shifting cultivation, while plains favor mechanized farming.
4. Irrigation Availability: Regions with assured irrigation like Punjab promote commercial farming.
5. Technology and Inputs: Access to mechanization and biotechnology influences farming intensity.
6. Market Accessibility: Proximity to mandis or processing units encourages cash crop farming.
7. Socio-Economic Status: Small farmers with low investment capability prefer subsistence or mixed farming.
8. Government Policies: Subsidies, support prices, and schemes like PM-KISAN and PMKSY impact crop and method choices.

India’s diverse agro-climatic zones and socio-economic conditions have led to the coexistence of traditional and modern farming systems. Promoting sustainable types of farming based on ecological suitability and farmer capacity is crucial for long-term productivity and livelihood security.

(b) Explain the term water use efficiency in relation to crop production. Discuss the role of pressurised irrigation methods to achieve the objectives of more crop per drop programme. (20 marks)
Ans: Water use efficiency (WUE) refers to the amount of crop yield or biomass produced per unit of water used. In agriculture, it signifies how effectively plants utilize available water resources for productive output. With increasing water scarcity and climate uncertainty, improving WUE is essential to ensure food security and sustainable agriculture.

Types of Water Use Efficiency in Agriculture:

1. Field Water Use Efficiency – Ratio of water stored in the root zone to water applied.
2. Crop Water Use Efficiency – Ratio of yield to total water consumed by the crop.
3. Irrigation Water Use Efficiency – Ratio of crop output to irrigation water applied.
4. Economic WUE – Economic return per unit of water used.

Key Strategies to Improve WUE:

• Adoption of efficient irrigation methods.
• Proper scheduling of irrigation based on soil moisture and ET needs.
• Use of drought-tolerant varieties.
• Mulching and soil organic matter enhancement.
• Rainwater harvesting and micro-irrigation systems.

Role of Pressurised Irrigation in Enhancing WUE:
Drip Irrigation

• Delivers water directly to the root zone at low pressure.
• Saves 30–70% water compared to flood irrigation.
• Enhances yield by 20–50% in crops like vegetables, sugarcane, and fruits.

Sprinkler Irrigation

• Mimics rainfall; distributes water uniformly across the field.
• Suitable for undulating lands and sandy soils.
• Reduces water wastage and controls soil erosion.

Micro-Sprinklers and Rainguns

• Used in orchards, plantations, and high-value crops.
• Support fertigation and pest management along with irrigation.

Smart Irrigation Systems

• Integrate sensors, IoT, and weather forecasting.
• Enable real-time decisions based on crop water demand.

Contribution to “More Crop per Drop” (PMKSY)

• Pressurised irrigation is central to the Per Drop More Crop component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY).
• Enhances productivity per unit of water.
• Encourages adoption in water-stressed states like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
• Subsidies up to 55–75% support marginal farmers in adopting drip and sprinkler systems.

Improving WUE through pressurised irrigation not only reduces water consumption but also enhances income, reduces input costs, and ensures sustainability. It is a key driver toward climate-resilient agriculture.

(c) Briefly discuss the factors affecting soil erosion. Write down the agronomic measures for soil conservation. (10 marks)
Ans: Soil erosion is the detachment and movement of topsoil by natural forces such as water and wind. It leads to the loss of fertile soil, reduced agricultural productivity, and ecological imbalance. Understanding the causes and implementing agronomic measures are essential for conservation.

Factors Affecting Soil Erosion:
Rainfall Intensity and Runoff

• High intensity and short-duration rainfall cause sheet, rill, and gully erosion.
• Bare soils are more prone to detachment and transport.

Soil Type and Structure

• Sandy and loose soils erode more easily than clay or loamy soils.
• Poor aggregation enhances detachment.

Slope Gradient and Length

• Steep and long slopes increase runoff velocity and erosion severity.

Vegetative Cover

• Lack of vegetation exposes soil to direct raindrop impact.
• Roots help bind soil particles and reduce erosion.

Land Use Practices

• Deforestation, overgrazing, and faulty tillage increase erosion risks.
• Cultivating fragile land intensifies degradation.

Agronomic Measures for Soil Conservation:

1. Contour Farming: Ploughing along the contour lines reduces runoff and slows down water movement.
2. Strip Cropping: Alternating strips of erosion-prone and erosion-resistant crops (e.g., maize and legumes) helps reduce soil loss.
3. Cover Crops: Growing quick-spreading crops like cowpea or sunhemp prevents soil exposure during fallow periods.
4. Mulching: Applying crop residues or organic mulch conserves moisture and prevents raindrop impact.
5. Crop Rotation: Including legumes and deep-rooted crops improves soil structure and prevents continuous erosion.
6. Green Manuring: Improves soil fertility and adds organic matter that enhances water retention and reduces erosion.
7. Intercropping: Densely planted systems like sorghum + pigeon pea reduce surface exposure.

Agronomic measures are cost-effective, farmer-friendly practices that integrate crop planning with conservation. When combined with engineering and vegetative methods, they significantly contribute to sustainable land management.