UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: Philosophy Paper 2 (Section- A) | Philosophy Optional for UPSC PDF Download

SECTION A

Q1: Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 × 5 = 50 Marks)
(a) Briefly discuss Plato's concept of justice.
Ans: Plato's concept of justice is one of the central themes of his seminal work, "The Republic", where he constructs a philosophical model of the ideal state and the just individual. For Plato, justice is not merely a legal or political principle but a moral virtue closely linked to the structure of the soul and society.

Plato’s Concept of Justice:

1. Justice as Harmony:

   • Plato defines justice as a harmonious structure where every part performs its designated function.

   • In the state, justice is achieved when the three classes—rulers (wisdom), warriors (courage), and producers (temperance)—do their roles without interfering in each other's domains.

2. Tripartite Soul and State:

   • Justice in the individual mirrors justice in the state.

   • The human soul has three parts:

     • Rational (reason)

     • Spirited (will/emotion)

     • Appetitive (desire)

   • Justice occurs when reason rules, will supports it, and desires are controlled.

3. Justice is Not Interference:

   • Plato argues justice means non-interference: everyone must “mind their own business” and not meddle with roles not assigned to them.

4. Ideal State as a Just State:

   • The just state is hierarchical but rational, with philosopher-kings ruling based on wisdom and truth.

Examples & Analogies:

• Plato uses the Analogy of the Charioteer, where reason (charioteer) controls the spirited and appetitive horses.

• In modern terms, it is similar to an efficient organization where employees stick to their expertise, ensuring smooth functioning.

Plato’s concept of justice transcends law and punishment. It is a moral order, both in the soul and society, where each part performs its natural role in harmony with the whole. His vision laid the foundation for later philosophical and political thought, especially in the context of virtue ethics and ideal governance.

(b) Present a brief account of origin and development of Social Contract Theory.
Ans: The Social Contract Theory (SCT) emerged during the Enlightenment as a response to the question of political authority and legitimacy. It proposes that the state and laws are founded on a contract—real or hypothetical—between individuals and their rulers.

Origin and Development:

1. Classical Roots:

   • Traces of contract theory appear in Sophists’ and Stoics’ works.

   • However, it formally develops in 17th–18th century Europe, shaped by thinkers responding to monarchical absolutism and civil unrest.

2. Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651):

   • Describes the state of nature as brutish and anarchic.

   • Individuals contract to surrender their rights to a sovereign for protection.

   • Emphasis on absolute authority to avoid chaos.

3. John Locke (Two Treatises of Government, 1689):

   • Views the state of nature as peaceful but insecure.

   • Social contract formed to protect natural rights—life, liberty, and property.

   • Advocates limited government and right to revolution.

4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract, 1762):

   • Believes in innate human goodness corrupted by society.

   • Advocates for a collective general will where individuals gain moral freedom through submission to a common authority.

Significance and Impact:

• Inspired democratic revolutions—especially the American and French Revolutions.
• Provided foundations for modern constitutionalism and liberal democracy.
• Later thinkers like Rawls revived SCT in the 20th century through "A Theory of Justice" (1971).

The Social Contract Theory revolutionized political thought by replacing divine-right monarchy with rational, consensual governance. From Hobbes’ authoritarianism to Rousseau’s democracy, it remains central to understanding state legitimacy, civil rights, and individual freedom.

(c) Discuss the main factors responsible for caste discrimination.
​Ans: Caste discrimination is a deep-rooted social evil in Indian society, historically linked to the varna system in Hinduism. Though legally abolished, it persists due to social, economic, religious, and political factors.

Main Factors Responsible:

1. Religious Justification:

   • Ancient texts like Manusmriti sanctioned hierarchical varna roles.

   • Associated caste with purity and pollution, legitimizing discrimination.

2. Birth-Based Hierarchy:

   • Caste is ascribed by birth, not by merit or ability.

   • Leads to systemic exclusion from education, jobs, and social mobility.

3. Occupational Segregation:

   • Traditional caste roles enforced labor division: Brahmins as priests, Shudras as menial workers.

   • Dalits were assigned ‘polluting’ jobs (manual scavenging, leatherwork).

4. Social Practices and Customs:

   • Endogamy (marriage within caste) and untouchability perpetuate discrimination.

   • Restrictions on access to temples, water sources, and education.

5. Economic Inequality:

   • Marginalized castes often lack land, capital, and education, making them vulnerable to exploitation.

6. Political Exploitation:

   • Caste-based vote-bank politics reinforces identities for electoral gains.

   • Lack of genuine reform initiatives sustains inequality.

Case Studies & Examples:

• Rohith Vemula case (2016) highlighted discrimination in higher education.
• Dalit atrocities in Hathras, Una, and elsewhere reflect continued violence.
• Ambedkar's struggle symbolizes resistance to caste oppression; he championed reservation and legal reform.

Caste discrimination is a complex phenomenon rooted in tradition, economy, and social structure. Despite constitutional safeguards, its persistence reveals the gap between law and lived reality. Effective redressal demands education, social reform, political will, and dismantling of entrenched hierarchies.

(d) Present an exposition of the concept of alienation as propounded by Marx.
Ans: The concept of alienation is central to Karl Marx's critique of capitalism, particularly discussed in his "Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844." Alienation refers to a condition where the individual becomes estranged from the products of their labor, from others, from themselves, and from the process of work itself. For Marx, this alienation is a direct result of the capitalist mode of production.

Marx's Concept of Alienation:

1. Alienation from the Product of Labor:

   • In a capitalist system, the worker does not own what they produce.

   • The product becomes an alien object, something external that does not belong to the creator.

   • Example: A factory worker producing luxury goods they cannot afford.

2. Alienation from the Process of Production:

   • Work becomes a mechanical, repetitive activity.

   • The worker has no control over how, when, or why the work is done.

   • Labor is reduced to a means of survival, not a fulfilling human activity.

3. Alienation from Others (Social Alienation):

   • Capitalism fosters competition rather than cooperation.

   • Workers are pitted against one another in a race for wages and jobs.

   • Human relationships become transactional and impersonal.

4. Alienation from the Self (Species-Being):

   • Humans are naturally creative beings (species-being), but capitalism stifles this.

   • The worker becomes dehumanized, reduced to a cog in the capitalist machine.

   • The ability to express one's essence through work is lost.

Theoretical Context & Case Study:

• Marx’s theory draws from Hegel’s idea of estrangement but applies it to material conditions.
• Example: In modern gig economy platforms like Amazon warehouses or Uber driving, workers often report mental exhaustion, lack of autonomy, and no connection to their work, showcasing alienation in action.

Marx's concept of alienation offers a powerful lens to understand the psychological and social effects of capitalist labor. It emphasizes how capitalism not only exploits workers economically but also estranges them from their humanity. Marx believed that only through the abolition of private property and class divisions could genuine human freedom and self-realization be restored.

(e) Compare socialism and communism as two distinct political ideologies.
Ans: Socialism and communism are two ideologies that aim for an egalitarian society by addressing the flaws of capitalism, such as inequality and exploitation. While they share similar goals, they differ in methods, implementation, and stages of development. Let us explore the key distinctions.

Difference between Socialism and Communism:

Examples and Theories:

• Karl Marx envisioned socialism as a preparatory phase to communism.
• Lenin and Stalin attempted to establish communism through state socialism, but often led to authoritarianism.
• Democratic Socialists like Bernie Sanders advocate for welfare socialism, not communism.

Though socialism and communism share a common lineage, they diverge in economic structure, political approach, and final goals. Socialism offers a flexible and democratic route to equity, while communism seeks a complete social transformation. Understanding their differences is crucial in debates on economic justice and governance in modern societies.

Q2:
​(a) Delineate the central tenets of Humanism. How does advent of enlightenment in Europe pave the way for Humanism? Discuss. (20 Marks)
​Ans:  Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value, dignity, and agency of human beings. It arose as a response to religious dogma and feudal structures in Europe, promoting rationality, secularism, individual freedom, and the capacity for self-determination. Its development was greatly influenced by the European Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries).

Central Tenets of Humanism:

1. Human Dignity and Worth:

   • Humans are inherently valuable and capable of moral reasoning.

   • Every person deserves respect, regardless of status or belief.

2. Rationalism and Empiricism:

   • Emphasizes reason and scientific inquiry as tools to understand the world.

   • Encourages skepticism towards superstition and blind faith.

3. Secularism:

   • Separation of religion from politics, education, and public life.

   • Ethics based on human needs and experiences, not divine authority.

4. Autonomy and Freedom:

   • Individual liberty is central; humans are responsible for shaping their destiny.

5. Moral Universalism:

   • Advocates universal rights and duties derived from shared humanity.

   • Emphasis on compassion, social justice, and human rights.

Impact of Enlightenment on Humanism:

• The Enlightenment challenged traditional authority and emphasized reason, science, and progress.

• Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant critiqued monarchism, clericalism, and dogma.

• Kant’s motto, “Sapere Aude” ("Dare to know"), captures Enlightenment humanism’s call for intellectual independence.

• French Revolution (1789) and American Revolution (1776) reflected humanistic values: liberty, equality, fraternity.

Examples & Influence:

• UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is grounded in humanist principles.
• Modern democracies, secular education systems, and civil liberties are practical legacies.

Humanism, fostered by the Enlightenment, marked a paradigm shift in thought—from divine will to human agency and rationality. It laid the foundation of modern democratic ideals, secular ethics, and scientific progress, continuing to influence contemporary global norms and policies.

(b) Critically evaluate the concepts of liberty and equality as political ideals. (15 Marks)
​Ans: Liberty and equality are two foundational principles in political philosophy. While both aim to ensure human dignity and justice, their interpretation and application often conflict or complement each other depending on the ideological context.

Concept of Liberty:

1. Negative Liberty (Isaiah Berlin):

   • Freedom from external interference.

   • Favored in liberal democracies.

   • Example: Freedom of speech, religion, property.

2. Positive Liberty:

   • Freedom to act and self-realize.

   • Requires enabling conditions (education, health, etc.).

   • Advocated by thinkers like T.H. Green and Amartya Sen.

Concept of Equality:

1. Formal Equality:

   • Equal rights and treatment under the law.

   • Limited in addressing real disparities.

2. Substantive Equality:

   • Focuses on outcomes and redistribution.

   • Supports affirmative action, social welfare, etc.

Tension Between Liberty and Equality:

• Too much liberty (especially economic) may result in inequality (capitalist exploitation).
• Too much emphasis on equality may curb individual freedoms (as seen in totalitarian socialism).

Reconciliation Attempts:

• Rawls’ Theory of Justice advocates “liberty compatible with equality.”
• He supports basic liberties along with the difference principle to address inequalities.

Liberty and equality are mutually reinforcing but also potentially conflicting ideals. A balanced political system ensures freedom for all while minimizing social and economic disparities. In practice, the challenge lies in negotiating between these values to create a just and inclusive society.

(c) Present an exposition of Gandhi's views on secularism as one of the foundational principles of democracy. (15 Marks)
​Ans: Mahatma Gandhi's concept of secularism was unique, rooted not in the Western notion of strict separation of church and state but in the equal respect for all religions. For Gandhi, religious pluralism and tolerance were vital to a democratic and morally upright society.

Gandhi’s Views on Secularism:

1. Sarva Dharma Sambhāva (Equal Respect for All Religions):

   • Gandhi did not advocate atheism or irreligion.

   • He believed all religions were different paths to the same truth.

   • Example: He read Quran, Bible, and Gita, drawing inspiration from each.

2. Religion as a Moral Force in Politics:

   • Gandhi believed politics without religion is immoral, but he meant ethical spirituality, not dogma.

   • Religion should guide conduct, not dominate policy.

3. Critique of Western Secularism:

   • Gandhi felt Western secularism neglected spiritual dimensions and moral education.

   • Instead of separation, he envisioned a harmonious coexistence of faiths in public life.

4. Against Communalism:

   • He strongly opposed the use of religion for political gain, especially Hindu-Muslim division.

   • Example: His fasts during communal riots emphasized moral unity.

Gandhi’s Legacy in Indian Secularism:

• Reflected in India’s Constitutional secularism, which allows freedom of religion but prohibits state religion.

• Article 25-28 echo Gandhi’s pluralistic vision.

Gandhi’s concept of secularism emphasized ethical coexistence, mutual respect, and moral politics. In contrast to Western secularism's exclusion of religion, Gandhi’s model aimed at spiritual inclusiveness, making it a unique and enduring foundation for India’s democracy.

Q3: 
(a) Do you agree with the view that Aristotle was more successful than Plato in steering a middle course between 'Statism' and 'individualism'? Discuss with arguments. (20 Marks)
Ans: The political philosophies of Plato and Aristotle were both aimed at creating a just and stable state. While Plato leaned toward an idealist, state-centric vision (Statism), Aristotle offered a more pragmatic approach balancing both the needs of the individual and the collective. Many scholars argue that Aristotle achieved a more nuanced balance between Statism and Individualism.

Plato’s Statism:

1. Collectivism in the Republic:

   • Plato, in The Republic, proposed abolishing private property and family for the guardian class.

   • Individual desires were to be subsumed under the state's moral order.

   • Justice was defined as everyone performing their prescribed role.

2. Criticism:

   • Thinkers like Karl Popper in The Open Society and Its Enemies criticized Plato’s model as totalitarian.

   • Plato’s rigid class structure left no room for personal freedom or dissent.

Aristotle’s Middle Path:

1. Empirical and Ethical Balance:

   • Aristotle, in Politics, asserted that man is a political animal, but also emphasized moral autonomy and personal flourishing (eudaimonia).

   • He advocated for a mixed constitution combining oligarchy and democracy.

2. Recognition of Property and Family:

   • Unlike Plato, Aristotle defended private property and family as essential for human development.

3. Golden Mean:

   • Aristotle’s entire ethical framework is based on the Golden Mean, suggesting balance between extremes—including between state control and individual freedom.

Aristotle’s model was more grounded in reality, allowing for individual flourishing within a civic community, unlike Plato’s utopian and rigid republic. Hence, Aristotle succeeded more effectively in maintaining equilibrium between statist control and individual freedom, making his political theory more adaptable and enduring.

(b) On what grounds would you accept or reject the idea of capital punishment as an effective deterrent? Discuss. (15 Marks)
​Ans: Capital punishment or the death penalty is one of the most controversial legal sanctions. It is often justified as a deterrent to heinous crimes, but its moral, legal, and empirical justifications remain widely debated.

Grounds for Accepting Capital Punishment:

1. Deterrence:

   • Proponents argue that fear of death may prevent potential criminals.

   • Retributive justice theory (Immanuel Kant) supports the notion of "an eye for an eye".

2. Public Safety and Irreversibility:

   • Eliminates the possibility of repeat offenses by hardened criminals.

3. Victim’s Justice:

   • Seen as closure for victims’ families and as a reaffirmation of justice.

Grounds for Rejecting Capital Punishment:

1. Lack of Conclusive Deterrence:

   • Studies (e.g., by the National Research Council, USA) show no definitive evidence that death penalty deters crime better than life imprisonment.

2. Possibility of Miscarriage of Justice:

   • Legal errors and wrongful convictions make death irreversible and unjust in such cases.

3. Moral and Human Rights Concerns:

   • Violates right to life under Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

   • Considered inhumane and degrading punishment.

4. Bias and Discrimination:

   • Often disproportionately affects marginalized communities.

While capital punishment may offer symbolic retribution, its efficacy as a deterrent is unproven, and the ethical risks and judicial fallibility render it problematic. A society committed to justice must explore rehabilitative and restorative alternatives.

(c) Is economic development a necessary condition, sufficient condition, both or neither, in order to achieve social progress? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. (10 + 5 = 15 Marks)
​Ans: Economic development refers to improvements in income, industry, and overall national output, whereas social progress includes health, education, gender equality, justice, and well-being. The relationship between the two is complex and often debated in development discourse.

Economic Development as a Necessary Condition:

1. Provides Resources for Social Infrastructure:

   • Economic growth leads to higher revenues, which fund healthcare, education, and welfare.

   • Example: Nordic countries used economic prosperity to create robust welfare states.

2. Employment and Poverty Reduction:

   • Enhances living standards and reduces poverty—a prerequisite for social progress.

Why It is Not a Sufficient Condition:

1. Growth without Equity:

   • Mere economic growth does not guarantee equality or justice.

   • Example: India has had high GDP growth but faces deep social inequality and caste-based discrimination.

2. Environmental and Ethical Costs:

   • Unsustainable development may deplete natural resources, harming future generations.

3. Need for Institutional Reforms:

   • Without good governance, human rights, and inclusive policies, economic development can be hollow.

Case Study:

• Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach argues that development should expand human freedoms, not just GDP. He stresses education, healthcare, and social inclusion over economic metrics alone.

Economic development is a necessary but not sufficient condition for social progress. It must be inclusive, equitable, and supplemented with social policies to ensure holistic human development.

Q4:
(a) Discuss gender equality as a necessary condition to achieve empowerment of women. Also examine the role of women empowerment in curbing the menace of female foeticide. (10 + 10 = 20 Marks)
Ans: Gender equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities for individuals of all genders. It is indispensable for women's empowerment, which entails enabling women to have control over their lives and decisions. In societies where gender disparity prevails, issues like female foeticide, gender-based violence, and social exclusion persist.

Part I: Gender Equality as a Necessary Condition for Women’s Empowerment

1. Equal Access to Resources and Opportunities:

   • Without gender equality, women are denied education, employment, and property rights, weakening their capacity to be empowered.

   • Example: Women’s literacy directly correlates with reduced child mortality and improved family health.

2. Legal and Political Empowerment:

   • Gender parity in legal rights and political representation (like 33% reservation in local bodies in India) fosters active participation and decision-making by women.

3. Societal Attitude and Cultural Norms:

   • Gender equality changes the perception of women from dependent to autonomous individuals, enhancing confidence and leadership.

4. Theoretical Support:

   • Amartya Sen's Capabilities Approach emphasizes the need to enhance women’s freedom to achieve empowerment.

Part II: Role of Women Empowerment in Curbing Female Foeticide

1. Awareness and Autonomy:

   • Empowered women resist family pressures and make independent reproductive choices.

2. Education as a Preventive Tool:

   • Educated women challenge patriarchal values and demand gender-neutral upbringing.

   • Example: In states like Kerala, where female education is high, female foeticide rates are significantly lower.

3. Economic Independence:

   • Financially empowered women are less dependent on male heirs for security, reducing the preference for sons.

4. Policy Implementation:

   • Empowered women can advocate for strict enforcement of laws like PCPNDT Act (2003) which prohibits sex-selective abortions.

Gender equality and women's empowerment are inseparably linked. Empowered women challenge regressive practices like female foeticide, thereby fostering a more just and inclusive society. Sustainable development is impossible without ensuring equal status for women at all levels.

(b) What insights does the Arthaśāstra offer with regard to the concept of sovereignty? Does it have any relevance in modern times? Critically discuss. (15 Marks)
Ans: The Arthaśāstra, attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), is an ancient Indian treatise on politics, economics, and statecraft. It presents a realist conception of sovereignty, emphasizing pragmatic governance, security, and the king’s obligation to the people.

Insights from Arthaśāstra on Sovereignty:

1. Saptānga Theory (Seven Limbs of the State):

   • The state comprises king, ministers, territory, fort, treasury, army, and allies.

   • Sovereignty is not absolute but depends on the strength and balance of these elements.

2. King as Central Authority:

   • The king is seen as the embodiment of state power, responsible for upholding dharma, protecting subjects, and ensuring prosperity.

3. Rule of Law and Governance:

   • Emphasized legal justice, efficient bureaucracy, and espionage for internal security.

4. Realpolitik:

   • Advocated matsya nyaya (law of the fish), where the strong devour the weak—hence the state must be powerful and vigilant.

Relevance in Modern Times:

1. Statecraft and Diplomacy:

   • Modern international relations mirror Kautilya’s mandala theory—suggesting ever-shifting alliances for national interest.

   • Example: India’s foreign policy balancing US, Russia, and China.

2. Emphasis on National Security:

   • His strategic insights are relevant in counter-terrorism, defense, and intelligence operations.

3. Limitations:

   • Arthaśāstra lacks emphasis on democracy, individual rights, and civil liberties, making it partially incompatible with modern constitutional governance.

The Arthaśāstra’s conception of sovereignty remains relevant for understanding state functioning, governance, and strategic affairs, especially in foreign policy and internal security. However, its monarchical and authoritarian inclinations must be balanced with modern democratic ideals.

(c) Discuss the role of ethical principles of tolerance and coexistence for the rise of multicultural societies. (15 Marks)
Ans: Multicultural societies, where diverse cultural, religious, and ethnic groups coexist, require robust ethical foundations to thrive. The principles of tolerance and coexistence are vital in promoting harmony and mutual respect in such pluralistic settings.

Role of Tolerance and Coexistence:

1. Foundation of Peaceful Coexistence:

   • Tolerance allows differences to be respected, reducing cultural conflict.

   • Coexistence fosters shared public spaces and civic engagement.

2. Promotes Democratic Values:

   • Enables participation from all communities regardless of identity.

   • Example: India’s constitutional secularism protects cultural plurality through tolerance.

3. Enables Cultural Exchange and Innovation:

   • Diverse societies benefit from fusion of ideas, innovation, and global competitiveness.

   • Example: USA’s multiculturalism contributing to its dynamic economy and culture.

4. Reduces Xenophobia and Violence:

   • Ethical education and interfaith dialogue help in curbing hate crimes and discrimination.

Theoretical Perspective:

• John Rawls’ Theory of Justice emphasizes the overlapping consensus of different moral doctrines to maintain stability in diverse societies.

• Charles Taylor advocated for recognition of minority identities as a form of ethical respect.

Case Study: Canada’s Multicultural Policy

• Canada legally supports multiculturalism through the Multiculturalism Act (1988), built on values of tolerance and integration.

• Promotes inclusive citizenship and has maintained low ethnic tensions.

Ethical principles of tolerance and coexistence are essential for the sustainability of multicultural societies. They promote mutual respect, peace, and unity in diversity—making ethical sensitivity a cornerstone of modern pluralistic democracies.