UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: PSIR Paper 2 (Section-A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

SECTION A

Q1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 × 5 = 50 Marks)
(a) Discuss the interpretive approach to the study of comparative politics.
Ans: The interpretive approach to comparative politics emphasizes understanding political systems through the perspectives, experiences, and narratives of individuals, cultures, and societies. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on broad structural analysis, the interpretive approach seeks to explore the meaning and values behind political actions and institutions. It often involves qualitative research, including historical analysis, ethnography, and case studies, to understand the lived experiences of people in different political systems.
This approach is grounded in understanding the subjective nature of politics and acknowledges that political phenomena can have multiple interpretations. For example, the role of religion in politics may be seen differently in a secular country like France compared to a theocratic state like Iran. The interpretive approach focuses on the political actors' self-understanding, motivations, and beliefs, as opposed to just observing external behaviors or institutions.
Critics of this approach argue that it can be too subjective and lacks scientific rigor. However, proponents believe it offers valuable insights into the cultural and social dimensions of politics that other approaches may overlook.

(b) Explain the central tenets of the World-Systems Theory.
Ans: The World-Systems Theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s, seeks to explain global inequality by categorizing the world into three regions: the core, the semi-periphery, and the periphery.

1. Core: The core consists of economically developed, industrialized nations that have high levels of technology, capital, and skilled labor. These countries dominate global trade and have significant political and military influence. Examples include the USA, Germany, and Japan.
2. Semi-periphery: The semi-peripheral nations are in transition. They have some degree of industrialization but are not as economically powerful as the core countries. These nations often exploit the periphery for resources and labor while being exploited by the core. Examples include Brazil, China, and India.
3. Periphery: Peripheral nations are the least developed and rely heavily on primary industries like agriculture and raw material extraction. They are often exploited by both the core and semi-periphery for resources. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Southeast Asia are examples of peripheral nations.

World-Systems Theory argues that the global capitalist system perpetuates a hierarchy where wealth and power are concentrated in the core, while the periphery remains underdeveloped. The theory challenges the idea of development as a linear process and suggests that development is shaped by global structures of exploitation.

(c) The expansionist tendencies of the current Russian regime indicate its intentions for the realisation of a Greater Russia on the lines of the Soviet era. Comment.
Ans: The expansionist tendencies of Russia under President Vladimir Putin have been a subject of significant international debate. Critics argue that Russia’s actions, particularly in Ukraine, Georgia, and other former Soviet states, reflect an effort to restore a "Greater Russia," reminiscent of the Soviet Union’s territorial scope. The annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the ongoing military involvement in eastern Ukraine are often cited as key examples of this expansionist agenda.
The idea of a "Greater Russia" draws on historical narratives where Russia, and later the Soviet Union, exerted influence over large parts of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. Putin has repeatedly spoken about the importance of reclaiming Russia’s historical influence, which many interpret as a desire to re-establish the power and territory lost with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
However, it is important to consider that Russia’s foreign policy is driven not just by expansionist motives but also by security concerns. NATO's eastward expansion has been perceived by Moscow as a direct threat to its sphere of influence and national security. Putin’s actions can, therefore, also be seen as attempts to safeguard Russia’s strategic interests rather than solely reasserting imperial ambitions.

While the rhetoric of "Greater Russia" resonates with nationalist sentiments within Russia, it also faces significant resistance both from the West and from neighboring countries. The situation remains fluid, with ongoing geopolitical tensions and conflicts in regions like Ukraine and the Baltic states. Russia’s future policies will likely continue to balance between expansionist inclinations and strategic defense needs.

(d) Explain the various facets of the idealist approach to the study of international relations. Comment on its contemporary relevance.
Ans: The idealist approach to international relations focuses on the role of ethical values, moral principles, and human aspirations in shaping the conduct of states and international organizations. Idealists argue that international relations should be based on cooperation, peace, justice, and human rights rather than power politics and military might.
Key Facets of Idealism:

1. Moral and Ethical Foundations: Idealists believe that the international system should operate on moral principles rather than the pursuit of power. They emphasize values like justice, equality, and respect for human rights.
2. International Cooperation: According to idealism, states should work together to achieve common goals, such as peace, disarmament, and human development. Organizations like the United Nations (UN) are viewed as critical tools in fostering such cooperation.
3. Humanitarianism and Social Justice: Idealists stress the importance of addressing global social issues, such as poverty, inequality, and human rights abuses. They advocate for international interventions to protect the oppressed.
4. International Law: Idealists support the idea that international law should guide state behavior and resolve conflicts peacefully. They believe that legal frameworks like the UN Charter and international treaties are essential for promoting order and justice.

Contemporary Relevance: In today’s world, the idealist approach faces significant challenges. The rise of nationalism, realpolitik, and power competition among global powers often undermines the idealist principles of cooperation and peace. For example, the recent Russia-Ukraine conflict has shown how geopolitical interests can override humanitarian concerns.
However, idealism still holds relevance in global efforts such as climate change negotiations, human rights advocacy, and peacekeeping missions. The global response to the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the need for international cooperation, even though it was often hampered by competition among states.
In conclusion, while the idealist approach may not always align with the harsh realities of international politics, its emphasis on ethics and cooperation provides a necessary counterbalance to more aggressive, power-driven strategies. Idealism continues to inspire global movements for peace, justice, and human rights, even as it faces challenges from more pragmatic political approaches.

(e) The changing global order and ongoing regional conflicts, with the global powers taking sides, have jeopardised the progress made towards disarmament in the past. Comment.
Ans: The global disarmament process, aimed at reducing weapons stockpiles and preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, has faced significant setbacks in recent years. The changing global order and regional conflicts, where global powers take sides, have contributed to the erosion of progress in disarmament.
Changing Global Order: The world today is witnessing a shift from unipolarity, dominated by the United States, to a more multipolar world with the rise of China, Russia, and other emerging powers. This shifting balance of power has led to new tensions, particularly in regions such as the South China Sea, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East. These tensions often involve the use of military force or the threat of it, which undermines efforts to promote global disarmament.
For instance, NATO’s expansion and the military buildup along Russia's borders have raised fears in Moscow, prompting it to enhance its military capabilities, including nuclear weapons. Similarly, the U.S. and its allies' military presence in the Indo-Pacific region has led to concerns in China, fueling a renewed arms race. In this context, disarmament talks are often sidelined in favor of military preparedness.
Ongoing Regional Conflicts: Regional conflicts, such as the war in Syria, the conflict in Yemen, and the ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, have exacerbated the global arms race. Countries involved in these conflicts often procure advanced weapons, including nuclear capabilities, either to defend their sovereignty or to gain a military advantage. In South Asia, for example, the nuclear rivalry between India and Pakistan has made it difficult to pursue disarmament or even arms control agreements in the region.
Global Powers Taking Sides: The involvement of global powers in regional conflicts, whether through direct military support or political backing, has created a polarized international environment. This polarization makes it harder to achieve consensus on disarmament issues. For instance, the U.S.-Russia arms control treaties have been undermined by mutual distrust and accusations of non-compliance. Similarly, the failure of the U.S. to rejoin the Iran nuclear deal and the growing tension in the Korean Peninsula highlight how superpower rivalries hinder the disarmament process.
Conclusion: The changing global order, regional conflicts, and the role of global powers have indeed jeopardized the progress made towards disarmament in the past. While disarmament remains a noble goal, the current geopolitical dynamics pose significant challenges. For meaningful progress to occur, there must be a renewed commitment to diplomacy, transparency, and multilateralism, alongside efforts to reduce tensions in regional conflicts. Only through cooperative efforts can global powers pave the way for a safer, disarmed world.

Q2:
(a) "Deglobalisation is displacing globalisation." Comment. (20 Marks)
Ans: The term "deglobalisation" refers to the process where global economic integration, characterized by free trade, capital mobility, and interdependent markets, is reversing or being challenged. It is seen as a reaction to the excesses of globalisation and the adverse effects it has had on local economies, societies, and cultures.
Globalisation, particularly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, led to a significant reduction in trade barriers, increased international capital flows, and a surge in cross-border supply chains. However, recent trends suggest that deglobalisation is taking place, driven by several factors:

1. Economic Nationalism: Countries, particularly in the West, have adopted more protectionist policies. The United States, under President Donald Trump, prioritized "America First," imposing tariffs on China and withdrawing from trade agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). This signals a shift away from free trade to policies focused on national interests.
2. Technological and Digital Changes: Advances in technology and automation have made self-sufficiency more achievable, reducing the need for global supply chains. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted vulnerabilities in global supply chains, encouraging countries to diversify their manufacturing bases and bring production closer to home.
3. Geopolitical Tensions: Rising tensions between major economies, such as the U.S.-China trade war, have led to a more fragmented global economy. The shift towards regionalism, where countries focus on trading and cooperating with nearby nations rather than engaging in global trade, has become more pronounced.

While deglobalisation may be gaining traction, it is essential to understand that globalisation is not entirely being displaced. The interconnectedness of global markets remains strong, and in many regions, global trade continues to grow. Additionally, international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) still play a crucial role in facilitating trade. However, deglobalisation highlights a shift in focus from economic interdependence to national and regional interests, which is reshaping the global economic landscape.

(b) What are the distinctive features of the post-modern state in the advanced capitalist economies? Analyse. (15 Marks)
Ans: The post-modern state refers to a shift in the way states operate in advanced capitalist economies, particularly after the mid-20th century. It represents a departure from traditional, modernist ideas of governance that were central to earlier periods. This transformation is evident in several key features:

1. Decentralization of Power: In post-modern states, there is a move away from a highly centralized form of government. The state is no longer seen as the sole entity that controls all aspects of public life. Instead, there is greater participation of local governments, private enterprises, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in decision-making processes. For example, the European Union (EU) exhibits a decentralized political structure, with power distributed across member states and various levels of government.
2. Welfare State and Market Fusion: Post-modern states in advanced capitalist economies often blend welfare policies with market-driven reforms. While they provide welfare benefits, they increasingly rely on market mechanisms to deliver public goods. For example, in healthcare systems like those in the U.K. or Sweden, there is a combination of public funding with private sector involvement in service delivery.
3. Cultural and Identity Politics: Post-modern states are more focused on issues of identity, culture, and diversity. These states actively engage with multiculturalism, recognizing the importance of ethnic, religious, and gender identities. The rise of social movements around LGBTQ+ rights, gender equality, and racial justice in countries like the U.S. and Canada illustrates this shift.
4. Technological Governance: The post-modern state is increasingly shaped by technology. The use of surveillance, data collection, and digital platforms in governance is a defining characteristic. The rise of e-governance in countries like Estonia, where citizens can access a wide range of government services online, demonstrates the increasing role of technology in governance.
5. Global Interdependence: The post-modern state is no longer an isolated actor. These states are increasingly interdependent, participating in global networks of trade, finance, and diplomacy. This is evident in the role of multinational corporations, international treaties, and transnational organizations such as the United Nations (UN).

In conclusion, the post-modern state is characterized by decentralization, market welfare fusion, cultural recognition, technological governance, and global interdependence. These features reflect the broader changes in society, politics, and economics that have emerged in advanced capitalist economies in response to the evolving demands of the globalized world.

(c) What were the limitations of NAFTA? How did its replacement by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement counter them? Explain. (15 Marks)
Ans: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), signed in 1994, created a trilateral trade bloc between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, aimed at reducing trade barriers and increasing economic cooperation. While NAFTA led to increased trade and economic growth in North America, it faced several limitations:

1. Labor and Environmental Standards: One of the major criticisms of NAFTA was its lack of strong labor and environmental protections. Critics argued that the agreement encouraged companies to move production to Mexico, where labor costs were lower, leading to job losses in the U.S. and Canada. Moreover, Mexico's environmental standards were not as stringent, which led to concerns about ecological degradation.
2. Manufacturing Shifts: NAFTA contributed to the outsourcing of jobs, particularly in manufacturing, from the U.S. to Mexico. This led to job losses in certain industries, especially in manufacturing sectors like textiles, automobiles, and electronics in the U.S.
3. Trade Imbalances: NAFTA did not sufficiently address the trade imbalances, particularly the growing trade deficit the U.S. had with Mexico. Critics pointed out that the agreement failed to ensure a more balanced flow of trade between the three countries.

In response to these limitations, NAFTA was replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020. The USMCA addressed some of the key shortcomings of NAFTA:

1. Stronger Labor and Environmental Provisions: The USMCA includes more stringent labor and environmental standards. It requires Mexico to improve labor rights, including better wages and workplace conditions. It also enforces stricter environmental protections, including provisions to combat pollution and improve sustainable practices.
2. Manufacturing and Trade Balance: The USMCA aims to bring more manufacturing back to the U.S. by requiring that a higher percentage of a product's components be sourced from North America. This is expected to help reduce the trade imbalance and create more jobs in the U.S. automotive sector.
3. Digital Trade: The USMCA includes provisions for digital trade, which were not part of NAFTA. This is significant given the rise of e-commerce and digital services. The agreement ensures that data can flow freely across borders, protecting intellectual property and encouraging innovation.

In conclusion, while NAFTA laid the foundation for North American trade, its limitations in labor, environmental standards, and trade imbalances prompted the renegotiation of the agreement. The USMCA addresses these issues, aiming to create a more balanced, equitable, and future-ready trade framework.

Q3:
(a) Discuss the major recent social movements related to the physical rights of women in various countries of the world. (20 Marks)
Ans: In recent years, the physical rights of women have been a central theme in social movements across the globe. These movements have focused on issues such as reproductive rights, sexual violence, and bodily autonomy. Some of the major recent social movements include:

1. MeToo Movement (Global): The MeToo movement, which gained global prominence in 2017, became a platform for women to speak out against sexual harassment and assault. It highlighted how sexual violence was often normalized in workplaces, entertainment, and even in politics. The movement led to widespread public discourse on consent, power dynamics, and gender equality, with women in various countries, including the United States, India, and France, sharing their experiences and demanding justice.
2. Reproductive Rights Movements (USA and Latin America): In the United States, the fight for reproductive rights has gained new momentum with ongoing debates over abortion laws. The 2022 Supreme Court decision to overturn Roe v. Wade sparked widespread protests across the country, with many advocating for the right to choose and for access to safe and legal abortion. In Latin America, countries like Argentina and Mexico have successfully legalized abortion in recent years, with social movements playing a crucial role in pushing for these changes.
3. Feminist Movements in the Middle East (Iran): In countries like Iran, women have led movements challenging laws that restrict their physical autonomy. The "Women, Life, Freedom" movement in Iran, especially in response to mandatory hijab laws, has seen women take to the streets demanding freedom of choice regarding their bodies and dress. These protests have gained international attention and symbolized resistance to authoritarian regimes.
4. NiUnaMenos (Argentina): In Argentina, the NiUnaMenos movement, which translates to "Not One Less," started as a response to femicide and gender-based violence. It spread to other parts of Latin America, demanding an end to violence against women and greater accountability for the perpetrators. The movement led to significant policy changes, including the decriminalization of abortion in Argentina in 2020.

These movements underscore the growing awareness and advocacy for women's physical rights worldwide. While progress has been made, challenges remain, particularly in conservative societies where traditional gender norms continue to dominate. The global nature of these movements has created solidarity and provided a platform for marginalized women to demand equal rights and justice.

(b) Critically examine the role of political parties in sustaining and stabilising democracies in the developing societies. (15 Marks)
Ans: Political parties play a crucial role in sustaining and stabilizing democracies, particularly in developing societies where democratic institutions are still maturing. While political parties are essential for democratic governance, their role can be both positive and negative depending on how they operate within the political system.
Positive Aspects:

1. Representation of Diverse Interests:
   In developing societies, political parties serve as a vehicle for representing the diverse interests of various social, economic, and ethnic groups. By aggregating and articulating these interests, parties provide a means for political participation, ensuring that different segments of society have a voice in governance. This inclusiveness can promote social cohesion and political stability.
2. Political Accountability:
   Political parties are essential for ensuring that elected officials are held accountable to the electorate. In well-functioning democracies, opposition parties challenge the ruling party, scrutinizing its policies and actions, thus fostering transparency and preventing corruption. Regular elections and party competition contribute to the stability of democratic systems by reinforcing the concept of accountability.
3. Formation of Government:
   In developing democracies, political parties are instrumental in forming governments, both at the national and regional levels. They provide the necessary leadership and structure for managing the state apparatus, formulating policies, and ensuring the delivery of public services.

Negative Aspects:

1. Factionalism and Polarization:
   In many developing countries, political parties are often driven by narrow, sectarian interests rather than broad national concerns. This can lead to factionalism and polarization, which destabilizes the political system. For example, in countries like India and Nigeria, political parties sometimes exploit ethnic, religious, or regional divisions to gain power, undermining national unity.
2. Dynastic Politics and Lack of Internal Democracy:
   In several developing democracies, political parties are often dominated by powerful families, which can lead to dynastic politics. This stifles internal democracy within the parties and prevents the emergence of new leadership. As a result, these parties become less responsive to the needs of the people, which hampers democratic development.
3. Corruption and Patronage:
   Political parties in developing countries often engage in corrupt practices, using state resources for electioneering and patronage. This erodes public trust in the political system and destabilizes democratic governance. For instance, party-led clientelism, where benefits are exchanged for votes, weakens the institutions of democracy.

In conclusion, while political parties are essential for the functioning of democracy, their role in developing societies is complex. They can either stabilize or destabilize democracy depending on their commitment to democratic principles, accountability, and the representation of diverse societal interests. Strengthening political parties through reforms that promote internal democracy, transparency, and responsible governance is crucial for the long-term stability of democracies in developing nations.

(c) Do you agree with the view that the USA uses NATO as a traditional tool of strategy to perpetuate its hegemony in the world? (15 Marks)
Ans: The assertion that the USA uses NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) as a tool to perpetuate its hegemony in the world has been a subject of much debate in international relations. While it is undeniable that NATO has been a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy and military strategy, it is important to examine this claim from both historical and contemporary perspectives.
Historical Context:
NATO was founded in 1949 during the Cold War as a collective defense alliance to counter the Soviet Union’s military threat in Europe. At that time, the alliance was clearly aligned with U.S. interests in preventing the spread of communism. The United States, as the dominant military power in NATO, used the alliance to solidify its influence over Western Europe, ensuring that the region remained aligned with its democratic, capitalist values and military strategy.
Post-Cold War Expansion:
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, NATO’s role shifted from being a defensive alliance to a more proactive one, with the U.S. leading efforts to expand NATO eastward. This expansion has been viewed by some as a strategic tool to maintain U.S. dominance in Europe and to contain Russia. The inclusion of former Eastern Bloc countries into NATO, such as Poland, Hungary, and the Baltic States, was seen as an effort to integrate these countries into the Western sphere of influence, ensuring that the U.S. had a strategic foothold in the region.
The expansion, however, has also generated significant tension with Russia, which perceives NATO’s growth as a direct challenge to its sphere of influence and security interests. The 2008 NATO summit, where Ukraine and Georgia were promised eventual membership, exemplified the friction between the U.S.-led alliance and Russia’s opposition to NATO’s expansion.
Contemporary Relevance:
In recent years, NATO’s role has evolved further, especially with the rise of non-traditional security threats, such as terrorism and cyber warfare. While the U.S. continues to wield significant influence within NATO, the alliance has also become more inclusive, with European countries taking greater responsibility for defense and security within the alliance. The U.S. has, at times, used NATO to project its military power, such as during the interventions in the Balkans in the 1990s, Afghanistan after 9/11, and Libya in 2011.
However, it is also important to note that NATO is a collective defense organization, where decisions are made by consensus among its 30 member states. This makes it a multilateral alliance, not solely a tool for U.S. hegemony. Moreover, the growing involvement of European powers in NATO operations reflects a shift toward a more balanced approach to security in Europe.
While the United States has certainly used NATO to promote its strategic interests, it is an oversimplification to claim that NATO is merely a tool of American hegemony. NATO has evolved into a multilateral institution with diverse goals, and its actions are shaped by the collective interests of its members, not just the U.S. Although the U.S. remains a dominant player, NATO’s expansion, actions, and strategies have also been influenced by the security concerns of other member states, particularly in Europe. Therefore, while NATO serves U.S. interests, it also serves the collective interests of its member states, making it more than just a tool for American dominance.

Q4:
(a) "The Gramscian theory of hegemony provides many valuable insights into the nature of global power." Comment. (20 Marks)
Ans: Antonio Gramsci’s theory of hegemony offers a critical lens through which we can understand the nature of power in global politics. In contrast to traditional views that focus solely on military or economic domination, Gramsci’s theory emphasizes the importance of ideological and cultural control in maintaining power.
Key Concepts of Gramscian Hegemony:

1. Consent and Coercion:
   Gramsci argued that ruling elites do not maintain power merely through coercion but also through gaining the consent of the people. This consent is manufactured through cultural institutions such as media, education, and religion, which shape public opinion and make the existing social order appear natural and inevitable. For example, in many capitalist societies, economic inequalities are justified by the idea of meritocracy and individual freedom, even though these societies are deeply unequal.
2. Ideological Control:
   Hegemony is maintained when dominant groups impose their worldview upon subordinate classes. This is not just through force but by influencing ideas, norms, and values that shape people's understanding of their place in society. Gramsci’s concept of “organic intellectuals” plays a crucial role here—these are people within society who work to perpetuate the dominant ideology.
3. Global Hegemony:
   In the context of global power, Gramsci’s ideas can be applied to understand the dominance of global powers like the United States. For example, U.S. global hegemony, post-World War II, is not just built on military power (e.g., NATO or the U.S. military presence) but also on the ideological export of neoliberal economic policies through institutions like the IMF and World Bank.

Contemporary Relevance:
Gramsci’s theory is valuable today, as it helps us understand how global powers like the U.S., China, and multinational corporations maintain dominance not only through hard power but also through soft power. For instance, cultural hegemony is evident in the global influence of American culture, films, and technology, which shape worldviews around the globe.

In conclusion, the Gramscian theory of hegemony provides a nuanced understanding of global power, showing how control is not just about coercion but also about shaping ideologies and winning consent from both elites and masses.

(b) The return of trade barriers and economic sanctions has diminished the spirit of GATT. In this context, discuss the factors contributing to the decline of WTO in recent times. (15 Marks)
Ans: The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established after World War II, laid the foundations for global trade liberalization. It aimed to reduce trade barriers and promote economic cooperation among countries. However, the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, which succeeded GATT, has faced significant challenges in recent years, and the spirit of GATT has been undermined due to several factors:

1. Rise of Protectionism: In recent years, there has been a resurgence of protectionist policies, where countries are increasingly turning towards trade barriers to shield domestic industries. The U.S., under President Donald Trump, imposed tariffs on China, undermining the principle of free trade that the WTO champions. Other countries have followed suit by imposing tariffs and trade barriers to protect local jobs and industries, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted global supply chains.
2. Economic Sanctions: The use of economic sanctions has become a tool of foreign policy for several countries, including the U.S. and the European Union. These sanctions, which target specific industries or entire countries, contradict the WTO’s focus on non-discrimination and equal treatment. For example, sanctions imposed on Russia following its annexation of Crimea, or on Iran over its nuclear program, have created significant tension within the global trading system.
3. Dysfunctional Dispute Settlement Mechanism: One of the key features of the WTO is its dispute resolution system, but in recent years, this mechanism has become dysfunctional. The Appellate Body, responsible for resolving trade disputes, has been paralyzed due to the U.S. blocking new appointments to it. This has severely impacted the ability of the WTO to mediate and resolve trade conflicts, weakening its role as a global trade regulator.
4. Inability to Adapt to Modern Trade Issues: The WTO has struggled to address emerging global trade issues, such as digital trade, e-commerce, intellectual property rights in the digital age, and environmental concerns. The rise of multinational corporations and global supply chains has complicated the global trade landscape, and the WTO has been slow to adapt to these changes.

The decline of the WTO is a result of the return of protectionism, the use of economic sanctions, the failure of the dispute settlement system, and the inability to address modern trade issues. These factors have diminished the spirit of GATT, and the WTO’s role in promoting free and fair trade is increasingly being challenged. To restore its relevance, the WTO needs to reform its mechanisms and adapt to the complexities of the 21st-century global economy.

(c) Do you agree with the view that the EU has thus far proved to be the most successful experiment in the regional integration processes? Account for its successes and also some of the recent challenges that it is faced with. (15 Marks)
Ans: The European Union (EU) is often considered one of the most successful experiments in regional integration due to its unique political, economic, and institutional framework. It has achieved significant milestones in terms of economic cooperation, peacebuilding, and policy integration. However, the EU also faces several challenges that have tested its unity and stability in recent years.
Successes of the EU:

1. Economic Integration:
   The EU has created a single market that allows for the free movement of goods, services, people, and capital among its 27 member states. The introduction of a common currency, the Euro, has facilitated trade and investment within the region. The EU’s common agricultural policy and cohesion funds have also contributed to reducing economic disparities between member states.
2. Peace and Stability:
   The EU is widely credited with bringing stability to a region that was historically marred by conflict. The integration process, particularly after World War II, helped heal historical wounds between countries like France and Germany, fostering peace and cooperation. The EU’s enlargement to include Eastern European countries after the fall of the Soviet Union has contributed to the democratization and economic development of those nations.
3. Global Influence:
   The EU has emerged as a significant global actor in terms of trade, diplomacy, and environmental policy. It is the largest trading bloc in the world and plays a crucial role in shaping international trade agreements and global standards, particularly in areas like environmental protection and human rights.

Challenges Facing the EU:

1. Brexit: The decision of the United Kingdom to leave the EU in 2016 (Brexit) has been one of the most significant challenges to European integration. It raised questions about the future of the EU and the willingness of other countries to remain in the union. Brexit has highlighted the complexities of regional integration and the challenges of maintaining unity when national interests diverge.
2. Immigration Crisis: The influx of refugees and migrants, particularly during the 2015 migrant crisis, has exposed deep divisions within the EU over how to manage migration. Countries like Hungary and Poland have resisted EU-led efforts to share the burden of migrant resettlement, which has strained the EU’s unity and its commitment to common values like solidarity and human rights.
3. Rise of Populism and Nationalism: In recent years, several EU member states have seen the rise of populist and nationalist movements, which question the EU’s policies on immigration, economic governance, and sovereignty. These movements challenge the idea of deeper integration and threaten to undermine the EU’s principles of cooperation and unity.

The EU has undoubtedly been a successful experiment in regional integration, achieving remarkable economic and political cooperation. Its successes in promoting peace, stability, and economic growth are undeniable. However, it faces significant challenges, particularly related to rising nationalism, immigration issues, and the aftermath of Brexit. The EU’s ability to navigate these challenges will determine its future as a model for regional integration.