Mock Test Paper - 2 (PSIR Optional Paper- I): Answers | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1(a). Behavioural approach in Political Science
Ans: The behavioural approach in Political Science emphasizes empirical, scientific methods to study political phenomena, focusing on observable behaviour rather than normative ideals. Emerging in the mid-20th century, it prioritizes data-driven analysis, using surveys, statistics, and quantitative tools to examine voting patterns, decision-making, and political attitudes. Scholars like David Easton advocated for systematic study to make Political Science more scientific. For instance, the 2024 Indian general election saw behavioural studies analyzing voter turnout through data from the Election Commission, revealing urban apathy trends. However, critics argue it overlooks values, ethics, and historical context, reducing complex human motivations to measurable data. Its strength lies in objectivity, but it struggles with subjective aspects like ideology or cultural influences, limiting its holistic understanding of politics.

Q1(b). Feminist perspective on power
Ans: The feminist perspective on power critiques traditional notions of power as hierarchical and male-dominated, emphasizing its pervasive, relational nature. Scholars like Iris Marion Young argue power operates through social structures, perpetuating gender inequalities in politics, workplaces, and homes. It highlights how patriarchal norms marginalize women, limiting their access to decision-making. For example, the 2024 Women’s Reservation Bill in India aims to counter systemic exclusion by reserving 33% of legislative seats for women. Feminists also explore ‘power within’—empowerment through agency and resistance, as seen in global movements like #MeToo. However, critics note that feminist perspectives sometimes overemphasize gender at the expense of class or race intersections. This approach reshapes Political Science by centering marginalized voices and advocating for inclusive power structures. 

Q1(c). Locke’s concept of social contract (PYQ)
Ans: John Locke’s social contract theory, outlined in Two Treatises of Government, posits that individuals consent to form a government to protect their natural rights—life, liberty, and property. Unlike Hobbes’ absolute sovereignty, Locke’s government is limited, with authority derived from the people’s consent. If the government fails to protect rights, citizens can revolt, as Locke justified the Glorious Revolution of 1688. His ideas influenced modern democracies, including India’s Constitution, emphasizing individual rights and accountable governance. In 2025, Locke’s relevance persists in debates over state overreach, such as privacy concerns in India’s data protection laws. Critics argue his theory assumes rational consent, ignoring marginalized groups’ exclusion. Nonetheless, Locke’s framework remains foundational for liberal democratic principles. 

Q1(d). Post-modern critique of sovereignty
Ans: The post-modern critique of sovereignty challenges the Westphalian notion of absolute state authority, viewing it as a constructed, fluid concept. Thinkers like Michel Foucault argue sovereignty is not a fixed entity but a product of power relations, discourses, and historical contingencies. Post-modernists question the state’s monopoly over legitimacy, highlighting how globalization, multinational corporations, and non-state actors erode traditional sovereignty. For instance, in 2024, India’s negotiations with global tech firms over data localization reflected tensions between state control and corporate influence. Critics of this view argue it undermines governance by relativizing authority. Yet, the critique underscores the need to rethink sovereignty in a world of interconnected challenges like climate change and cyber threats, pushing for more collaborative frameworks. 

Q1(e). Relevance of Marxism in contemporary politics
Ans: Marxism, rooted in class struggle and critique of capitalism, remains relevant in analyzing contemporary political and economic inequalities. Its focus on systemic exploitation resonates in debates over wealth disparities, as seen in Oxfam’s 2024 report highlighting India’s top 1% owning 40% of wealth. Marxist ideas inspire movements against corporate monopolies and labor exploitation, such as gig workers’ protests in India in 2025. However, critics argue Marxism’s emphasis on class overlooks identity-based oppressions like caste or gender and its historical failures in socialist states. Neo-Marxist thinkers like Antonio Gramsci adapt it to cultural hegemony, explaining media’s role in shaping public consent. While not a governing blueprint, Marxism’s analytical lens aids in understanding structural inequalities in globalized economies. 

Q2(a). Deliberative democracy fosters inclusive governance but faces challenges in polarized societies
Ans:
Introduction: Deliberative democracy emphasizes inclusive, reasoned public discourse to shape governance, fostering participation and legitimacy. However, polarized societies pose significant challenges to its effectiveness.

Body:

1. Promotes Inclusivity: Deliberative democracy encourages dialogue among diverse groups, ensuring marginalized voices are heard. India’s 2024 Gram Sabha meetings on rural development exemplify this, enabling community input.

2. Enhances Legitimacy: Policies shaped through deliberation, like India’s 2025 climate action plans, gain public trust by reflecting collective reasoning.

3. Challenges in Polarization: Deep ideological divides, as seen in India’s 2024 election rhetoric, hinder consensus, with social media amplifying misinformation.

4. Practical Limitations: Time constraints and unequal access to platforms exclude vulnerable groups, undermining inclusivity. For instance, urban-centric policy forums often sideline rural voices.

Conclusion: While deliberative democracy strengthens governance, polarization and structural barriers limit its potential. Strengthening civic education and digital inclusivity can enhance its effectiveness in diverse societies like India. 

Q2(b). Communitarian critique of liberalism
Ans:
Introduction: The communitarian critique, notably by Michael Sandel, challenges liberalism’s emphasis on individual autonomy, arguing it neglects collective identity and shared values essential for societal cohesion.

Body:

1. Critique of Individualism: Sandel argues liberalism’s ‘unencumbered self’—free from communal ties—undermines social bonds. He critiques Rawls’ justice theory for prioritizing individual rights over community welfare.

2. Emphasis on Collective Identity: Communitarians stress shared traditions, as seen in India’s 2024 community-driven conservation efforts in Assam, where tribal values shaped environmental policies.

3. Moral Context: Sandel advocates embedding justice in cultural contexts, criticizing liberalism’s universalism. For instance, India’s caste-based reservations reflect community-specific justice, aligning with communitarian ideals.

4. Limitations: Critics argue communitarianism risks suppressing individual freedoms, especially for minorities within communities, as seen in debates over personal laws in India.

Conclusion: Sandel’s critique highlights liberalism’s blind spots, advocating a balance between individual rights and collective identity. India’s pluralistic policies reflect this tension, necessitating nuanced governance. 

Q2(c). Eurocentrism in post-colonial political theory (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: Eurocentrism, the privileging of European perspectives, is both the target and motive force of post-colonial political theory, which seeks to deconstruct colonial narratives while grappling with their pervasive influence.

Body:

1. Target of Critique: Post-colonial theory, through scholars like Edward Said, critiques Eurocentrism for marginalizing non-Western knowledge systems. India’s 2024 education reforms emphasizing indigenous philosophies challenge Eurocentric curricula.

2. Motive Force: Engaging with Eurocentrism drives post-colonial theorists to reclaim agency, as seen in African decolonization movements reframing governance models in 2025.

3. Persistent Influence: Eurocentric frameworks, like liberal democracy, shape global institutions, forcing post-colonial states to navigate these norms, evident in India’s WTO negotiations in 2024.

4. Challenges: Overemphasizing anti-Eurocentrism risks essentializing non-Western identities, limiting universal dialogue.

Conclusion: Post-colonial theory’s dual engagement with Eurocentrism fuels its transformative potential but requires balancing local authenticity with global realities to foster equitable political discourse. 

Q3(a). Hannah Arendt’s concept of ‘banality of evil’
Ans:
Introduction: Hannah Arendt’s ‘banality of evil,’ developed in Eichmann in Jerusalem, highlights how unreflective obedience to authority enables heinous acts, posing profound implications for political responsibility.

Body:

1. Core Concept: Arendt argues that evil arises not from malice but from thoughtless compliance, as seen in Eichmann’s bureaucratic role in the Holocaust. This underscores the danger of uncritical adherence to orders.

2. Political Implications: It warns against blind loyalty in politics, relevant to 2024’s global rise in populist regimes where bureaucratic complicity stifles dissent.

3. Contemporary Relevance: In India, 2025’s misuse of sedition laws by officials reflects unreflective enforcement, echoing Arendt’s concerns.

4. Critique: Critics argue Arendt underestimates ideological motivations, yet her emphasis on individual moral responsibility remains vital for accountable governance.

Conclusion: Arendt’s concept urges active political engagement and critical thinking to prevent systemic injustices. Strengthening civic education can counter the banality of evil in modern politics. 

Q3(b). Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj
Ans:
Introduction: Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj transcends political independence, encompassing moral, spiritual, and economic self-rule, offering a holistic vision for individual and collective emancipation.

Body:

1. Beyond Political Freedom: Gandhi viewed Swaraj as self-governance rooted in ethical living, emphasizing non-violence and truth. His 1920s campaigns promoted village self-reliance.

2. Moral and Spiritual Dimensions: Swaraj required personal discipline and communal harmony, reflected in Gandhi’s emphasis on interfaith unity, relevant to India’s 2024 communal harmony initiatives.

3. Economic Self-Reliance: Gandhi’s advocacy for khadi and local economies, echoed in 2025’s ‘Make in India’ push for MSMEs, aimed at empowering communities.

4. Critique: Critics argue Swaraj’s idealism is impractical in globalized economies, yet its focus on grassroots empowerment endures.

Conclusion: Gandhi’s Swaraj remains a guiding principle for inclusive development, urging India to balance modernity with ethical governance. 

Q3(c). Affirmative Action Policies (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: Affirmative Action Policies, designed to promote equality for marginalized groups, attract both strong support and criticism, reflecting their complex role in achieving equitable societies.

Body:

1. Support for Equality: These policies, like India’s caste-based reservations, address historical injustices, enabling access to education and jobs. The 2024 OBC quota expansion boosted opportunities.

2. Criticism of Implementation: Critics argue they entrench divisions and favor elites within reserved groups, as seen in debates over ‘creamy layer’ exclusions in 2025.

3. Equality vs. Merit: Opponents claim affirmative action undermines meritocracy, citing competitive exam disparities, while supporters emphasize systemic barriers necessitating such measures.

4. Balancing Act: Effective policies require periodic review, as India’s 2024 reservation policy revisions aim to balance equity and efficiency.

Conclusion: Affirmative Action is vital for equality but must evolve to address criticisms and ensure inclusive justice, aligning with constitutional goals. 

Q4(a). Plato’s philosopher-king
Ans:
Introduction: Plato’s philosopher-king, envisioned in The Republic, is an ideal ruler guided by wisdom and justice, but its practicality in modern democracies is questionable due to structural and ethical challenges.

Body:

1. Ideal of Justice: Plato argued philosopher-kings, trained in philosophy, ensure just governance by prioritizing the common good, unlike self-interested rulers.

2. Impracticality in Democracies: Modern democracies value electoral accountability, clashing with Plato’s elitist model. India’s 2024 elections underscored public choice over intellectual rule.

3. Risk of Authoritarianism: Concentrating power in a single ruler risks tyranny, as seen in critiques of centralized governance in 2025’s policy debates.

4. Relevance Today: While impractical, Plato’s emphasis on informed leadership inspires calls for educated policymakers, evident in India’s 2024 push for technocratic governance.

Conclusion: Plato’s philosopher-king offers a compelling vision of just leadership but is incompatible with democratic pluralism. Modern governance requires balancing expertise with accountability to reflect Plato’s ideals. 

Q4(b). Kautilya’s Mandala theory
Ans:
Introduction: Kautilya’s Mandala theory, from Arthashastra, conceptualizes interstate relations as concentric circles of allies and enemies, offering strategic insights into contemporary geopolitics.

Body:

1. Core Principles: The theory posits a state’s neighbors as potential enemies and their neighbors as allies, guiding diplomatic strategy.

2. Contemporary Relevance: India’s 2024 engagement with QUAD nations (US, Japan, Australia) to counter China reflects Mandala’s ally-building against a proximate threat.

3. Balancing Power: Kautilya’s emphasis on strategic alliances is evident in India’s 2025 multi-alignment policy, balancing relations with Russia and the West amid Ukraine tensions.

4. Limitations: The theory’s focus on state-centric rivalry overlooks non-state actors like cyber threats, requiring adaptation.

Conclusion: Kautilya’s Mandala theory provides a timeless framework for navigating geopolitical complexities, guiding India’s strategic diplomacy in a multipolar world. 

Q4(c). J.S. Mill on gender subordination (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: J.S. Mill’s assertion in The Subjection of Women that legal subordination of one sex to another is inherently wrong and a barrier to human development remains profoundly relevant.

Body:

1. Inherent Injustice: Mill argued gender subordination violates equality, denying women autonomy. India’s 2024 Women’s Reservation Bill addresses this by enhancing political representation.

2. Hindrance to Development: By limiting women’s contributions, patriarchal laws stifle societal progress, as seen in India’s low female labor force participation (32% in 2025).

3. Continued Relevance: Mill’s call for legal equality inspires reforms, like 2025’s push for gender-neutral inheritance laws.

4. Critique: Critics note Mill’s focus on legal reform overlooks cultural barriers, yet his vision drives feminist advocacy.

Conclusion: Mill’s critique underscores the need to dismantle gender subordination for equitable development, urging comprehensive reforms in law and society. 

Section-B

Q5(a). Role of the Constituent Assembly
Ans: The Constituent Assembly (1946–1950) played a pivotal role in drafting India’s Constitution, shaping its democratic framework. Comprising 389 members, including Ambedkar and Nehru, it debated diverse ideologies to craft a document balancing unity and diversity. It adopted universal adult franchise, federalism, and fundamental rights, drawing from global models like the British and American Constitutions. The Assembly’s inclusive deliberations, such as integrating minority rights, ensured social justice, reflected in the 2024 implementation of reservation policies. However, critics note its elite dominance limited grassroots representation. Its legacy endures, as seen in 2025 debates on constitutional amendments for digital rights, underscoring its foundational impact on India’s polity. 

Q5(b). Women’s reservation in Indian politics
Ans: Women’s reservation in Indian politics, notably through the 2023 Women’s Reservation Bill (effective 2024), reserves 33% of seats in Parliament and state legislatures to enhance gender equity. It aims to address women’s underrepresentation, as only 14% of MPs were women in 2024. The policy empowers women, as seen in increased female leadership in local panchayats post-1993 reforms. However, critics argue it may entrench elite women’s dominance, sidelining marginalized groups, and face implementation delays due to delimitation concerns. The 2025 elections will test its impact, with parties strategizing to include women candidates. While a step toward inclusivity, its success depends on addressing structural barriers like patriarchal norms and ensuring equitable access. 

Q5(c). Impact of coalition politics on Indian federalism
Ans: Coalition politics, prominent since the 1990s, has reshaped Indian federalism by amplifying regional voices and decentralizing power. Regional parties like TMC and DMK, integral to coalitions, push state-specific agendas, strengthening federal diversity. The 2024 coalition government’s negotiations on GST revenue sharing exemplify this, balancing state autonomy with national unity. However, coalition compulsions can lead to policy compromises, delaying reforms, as seen in stalled labor codes in 2025. It also risks centralization when dominant national parties leverage coalitions to assert control. While coalition politics fosters cooperative federalism, its effectiveness hinges on aligning diverse interests to uphold India’s federal spirit.

Q5(d). Ambedkar’s vision of social justice
Ans: B.R. Ambedkar’s vision of social justice centered on dismantling caste oppression and ensuring equality for marginalized groups. As architect of India’s Constitution, he embedded safeguards like reservations and anti-discrimination laws (Articles 15, 16). His call to “Educate, Agitate, Organize” inspired Dalit movements, evident in 2024 protests against caste violence in Maharashtra. Ambedkar advocated annihilating caste to achieve true equality, a vision reflected in 2025 policies expanding educational quotas for OBCs. Critics argue his focus on legal reforms overlooked cultural change, yet his legacy endures in India’s pursuit of inclusive justice, shaping contemporary affirmative action debates. 

Q5(e). Judicial activism in environmental governance
Ans: Judicial activism in environmental governance has shaped India’s sustainability efforts through landmark rulings. The Supreme Court’s interventions, like banning firecrackers in Delhi (2018) and ordering clean energy transitions in 2024, reflect proactive environmental stewardship. In 2025, the Court’s directive to enforce coastal regulation zones protected marine ecosystems in Tamil Nadu. By invoking public interest litigation (PIL), it ensures state accountability, compensating for legislative delays. Critics argue such activism risks judicial overreach, undermining elected bodies. Nonetheless, it addresses urgent crises like air pollution and climate change, reinforcing India’s commitment to sustainable development.

Q6(a). 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act
Ans:
Introduction: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) aimed to empower rural local governance by establishing Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), fostering grassroots democracy. Despite its transformative intent, structural challenges persist.

Body:

1. Key Provisions: The Act mandates three-tier PRIs, reservations for women and marginalized groups, and devolution of 29 subjects to panchayats. It ensures financial autonomy via State Finance Commissions.

2. Achievements: PRIs empowered rural voices, with 2024 Gram Sabha resolutions shaping local health programs in Rajasthan. Women’s participation surged, with 50% reservation boosting leadership.

3. Challenges: Limited fiscal devolution hampers autonomy, as states retain control over funds. Bureaucratic resistance and low capacity, evident in uneven MGNREGA implementation in 2025, weaken PRIs.

4. Recent Context: The 2024 e-Panchayat platform enhanced transparency but faced digital access issues in remote areas.

Conclusion: The Act laid a robust foundation for rural governance, but its potential remains unrealized due to structural and implementation gaps. Strengthening fiscal and administrative autonomy is critical. 

Q6(b). National Commission for Women
Ans:
Introduction: The National Commission for Women (NCW), established under the 1990 Act, advances gender justice by safeguarding women’s rights and promoting equality. Its role is pivotal yet limited by structural constraints.

Body:

1. Functions: NCW investigates complaints, recommends policy reforms, and raises awareness. In 2024, it addressed workplace harassment cases, pushing for stricter POSH Act enforcement.
2. Achievements: NCW’s helplines and legal aid empowered women, with 2025 campaigns tackling cybercrimes against women. Its advocacy led to stronger anti-trafficking laws.
3. Limitations: Lack of enforcement powers restricts NCW to advisory roles, as seen in delayed action on 2024 domestic violence cases. Resource constraints and political interference further hamper effectiveness.
4. Recent Context: NCW’s 2025 review of the Women’s Reservation Bill implementation highlighted gaps in grassroots training for women leaders.

Conclusion: NCW is a vital catalyst for gender justice, but its advisory nature and resource limitations necessitate reforms to enhance its impact. 

Q6(c). Constitution of India as the cornerstone (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: Granville Austin termed India’s Constitution the ‘cornerstone of a nation’ for its role in unifying a diverse polity and embedding democratic values. Its enduring relevance lies in balancing stability and adaptability.

Body:

1. Unifying Framework: The Constitution integrates diverse linguistic and cultural groups through federalism and fundamental rights, fostering national unity. The 2024 delimitation debates reflect its adaptability to demographic changes.

2. Democratic Foundation: It ensures participatory governance via universal suffrage and independent institutions like the Election Commission, evident in the 2024 elections’ fairness.

3. Social Justice: Provisions like reservations and directive principles address inequalities, as seen in 2025’s expanded OBC quotas.

4. Challenges: Centralizing tendencies, like GST implementation, and judicial overreach occasionally strain its federal spirit.

Conclusion: As India’s cornerstone, the Constitution sustains democracy and justice. Strengthening cooperative federalism and civic awareness will ensure its continued relevance. 

Q7(a). India’s federal structure
Ans:
Introduction: India’s federal structure, enshrined in the Constitution, balances unity and diversity through power-sharing between the Centre and states. However, centralizing tendencies challenge its federal spirit.

Body:

1. Federal Features: The Constitution’s division of powers (Union, State, Concurrent Lists) and institutions like the Finance Commission promote cooperative federalism, as seen in 2024’s GST revenue-sharing agreements.

2. Centralizing Tendencies: Emergency provisions, Article 356, and fiscal dominance by the Centre tilt the balance. The 2025 central push for uniform civil code sparked state resistance, highlighting tensions.

3. Regional Aspirations: Coalition governments and regional parties, like DMK in 2024, strengthen state autonomy by advocating local interests.

4. Judicial Role: The Supreme Court’s rulings, like upholding federal principles in 2024’s Delhi governance case, check central overreach but face criticism for inconsistency.

Conclusion: India’s federalism fosters unity but leans toward centralization. Enhancing fiscal devolution and respecting state autonomy can strengthen its federal character. 

Q7(b). Rise of caste-based politics
Ans:
Introduction: The rise of caste-based politics in India reflects social mobilization and electoral strategies, shaping democratic dynamics since the 1980s.

Body:

1. Social Mobilization: Caste-based parties like BSP empower marginalized groups, addressing historical injustices. The 2024 Dalit protests in Uttar Pradesh highlight caste as a rallying point.

2. Electoral Strategies: Parties leverage caste identities for vote banks, as seen in 2025 Bihar elections where OBC alliances influenced outcomes.

3. Positive Impact: Caste politics amplifies representation, with reservation policies ensuring Dalit and OBC voices in governance.

4. Challenges: It risks deepening social divisions and prioritizing caste over broader issues, as evident in stalled economic reforms due to caste-based demands in 2024.

Conclusion: Caste-based politics drives inclusion but requires balancing identity politics with national unity to foster cohesive development. 

Q7(c). National Commission for Minorities
Ans:
Introduction: The National Commission for Minorities (NCM), established under the 1992 Act, safeguards minority rights, promoting inclusivity in India’s diverse polity, though it faces significant challenges.

Body:

1. Functions: NCM monitors minority welfare, investigates discrimination, and advises on policy. In 2024, it addressed communal violence in Manipur, recommending rehabilitation measures.

2. Achievements: Its advocacy strengthened minority education schemes, with 2025’s budget increasing scholarships for Muslim students.

3. Challenges: Lacking enforcement powers, NCM’s recommendations are often ignored, as seen in delayed action on 2024 hate speech cases. Resource constraints and political pressures further limit impact.

4. Recent Context: NCM’s 2025 report on minority safety highlighted gaps in state-level implementation of protective laws.

Conclusion: NCM plays a crucial role in minority protection but requires greater authority and resources to effectively uphold constitutional guarantees of equality. 

Q8(a). Supreme Court’s role in public interest litigation
Ans:
Introduction: The Supreme Court’s use of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has transformed policy-making in India, addressing gaps in governance, though it raises concerns about judicial overreach.

Body:

1. Policy Influence: PILs have driven reforms, like the 2024 clean air directive mandating renewable energy adoption in Delhi, compensating for legislative inaction.

2. Social Justice: The Court’s 2025 ruling on transgender rights expanded reservation benefits, promoting inclusivity.

3. Environmental Governance: PILs led to coastal protection measures in Tamil Nadu (2025), ensuring ecological sustainability.

4. Critiques: Critics argue PILs encroach on executive and legislative domains, as seen in debates over the Court’s 2024 farm law interventions, risking democratic balance.

Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s PIL-driven interventions address critical issues but must respect separation of powers. Judicial restraint and collaborative governance can enhance its role in policy evolution. 

Q8(b). NITI Aayog’s collaborative federalism
Ans:
Introduction: NITI Aayog, established in 2015, promotes collaborative federalism by redefining planning through state-Centre partnerships, but its effectiveness is debated.

Body:

1. Vision and Role: NITI Aayog fosters cooperative governance via initiatives like the Aspirational Districts Programme, improving development metrics in 2024.

2. Achievements: Its 2025 health index spurred state-level reforms, with Kerala leading in outcomes. It facilitates policy dialogue through Governing Council meetings.

3. Limitations: Lack of statutory powers limits enforcement, as seen in uneven state adoption of 2024 agricultural reforms. Critics argue it prioritizes Centre-driven agendas.

4. Recent Context: NITI’s 2025 digital economy framework faced state resistance over data privacy concerns, highlighting federal tensions.

Conclusion: NITI Aayog advances collaborative federalism but needs greater authority and inclusivity to fully realize its vision of decentralized planning.

Q8(c). Fundamental duties in the Indian Constitution
Ans:
Introduction: Fundamental Duties, under Article 51A of the Indian Constitution, aim to foster civic responsibility but lack enforceability, limiting their impact.

Body:

1. Purpose: Introduced by the 42nd Amendment (1976), duties like promoting harmony and protecting the environment encourage responsible citizenship, reflected in 2024’s Swachh Bharat campaigns.

2. Positive Impact: They inspire civic initiatives, such as 2025’s tree-planting drives aligned with environmental duties.

3. Lack of Enforceability: Unlike rights, duties are non-justiciable, reducing compliance, as seen in persistent littering despite cleanliness duties.

4. Need for Awareness: Limited public knowledge hampers effectiveness, necessitating education campaigns, as proposed in 2025’s budget.

Conclusion: Fundamental Duties promote civic values but require legal backing and awareness to ensure meaningful adherence, strengthening India’s democratic ethos.