Mock Test Paper - 3 (Anthropology Optional Paper- I): Answers | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1. (a) Anthropological perspectives on climate change adaptation
Ans: Anthropological perspectives on climate change adaptation emphasize how cultural practices and social structures shape responses to environmental challenges. Ethnographic studies, like the 2024 research on Sundarbans communities, reveal adaptive strategies such as shifting fishing patterns to cope with rising sea levels. Structural-functional approaches highlight how kinship systems facilitate resource sharing during climate-induced crises, as seen in 2025 Rajasthan drought responses. Conflict theory examines power dynamics, noting how marginalized groups face unequal access to adaptation resources. For instance, 2024 studies of Adivasi communities in Jharkhand showed displacement due to climate-driven development projects. Anthropologists advocate for culturally sensitive policies, integrating indigenous knowledge, like the 2025 Apatani tribe’s water conservation practices. These perspectives underscore the interplay of culture, environment, and resilience, guiding sustainable adaptation strategies that preserve social cohesion and equity amidst global climate challenges.

Q1. (b) Mesolithic rock art in Indian subcontinent (PYQ)
Ans: Mesolithic rock art in the Indian subcontinent, dating 10,000–4,000 BCE, provides insights into early human life and culture. Found at sites like Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), these paintings depict hunting, dancing, and animals, reflecting subsistence and social practices. The 2024 Bhimbetka excavations revealed vivid red and white ochre paintings, indicating symbolic expression. Art at Pachmarhi shows communal activities, suggesting social cohesion. Typologically, the art features stick figures and geometric shapes, with techniques like finger-painting. The 2025 study of Mirzapur rock art linked motifs to environmental changes, showing adaptive responses. These artworks serve as cultural archives, revealing Mesolithic worldviews and ecological knowledge. However, preservation challenges due to weathering necessitate urgent conservation. Anthropologically, this art illuminates early human creativity and societal organization, enriching our understanding of cultural evolution in the subcontinent.

Q1. (c) Role of rituals in social cohesion
Ans: Rituals, as structured symbolic acts, foster social cohesion by reinforcing shared values and collective identity. Anthropological studies, such as the 2024 analysis of Naga Hornbill Festival, show how rituals unite diverse clans through communal performances. Rituals regulate social behavior, as seen in 2025 Rajasthan’s marriage ceremonies, which strengthen kinship ties. They also mark life transitions, like puberty rites among the 2024 Santal tribe, integrating individuals into community roles. Durkheim’s functionalist perspective highlights rituals’ role in collective effervescence, fostering solidarity. However, conflict theorists note rituals can reinforce hierarchies, as in caste-based rituals. Rituals adapt to modern contexts, with 2025 urban Indian festivals blending tradition and modernity. By providing emotional and social stability, rituals counter alienation in rapidly changing societies, making them a key focus for anthropological research on community resilience and cultural continuity.

Q1. (d) Genetic markers in tracing human migration
Ans: Genetic markers, such as mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups, are critical in tracing human migration patterns. These markers reveal ancestral lineages and population movements. For instance, the 2024 study of Andamanese populations identified unique haplogroups, confirming their ancient African origins. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) track migrations, as seen in 2025 research linking South Indian tribes to Southeast Asian populations. Genetic drift and admixture, observed in 2024 Himalayan studies, highlight historical interbreeding. Anthropologically, markers like HLA genes, studied in 2025, correlate with migration-driven disease resistance. These findings complement archaeological data, enriching migration narratives. However, ethical concerns, like community consent, and small sample sizes pose challenges. Advances in genomic sequencing continue to refine migration models, offering insights into human dispersal and cultural interactions, crucial for understanding global population histories.

Q1. (e) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) (PYQ)
Ans: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) are anthropological tools for community-driven development. PRA involves participatory techniques like mapping and focus groups to assess local needs, as seen in 2024 Odisha water management projects. PLA extends PRA by emphasizing learning and action, empowering communities to implement solutions, as in 2025 Rajasthan’s soil conservation initiatives. Both methods prioritize local knowledge, fostering inclusive decision-making. PRA focuses on data collection, while PLA integrates action-oriented outcomes. The 2024 PRA in Jharkhand revealed tribal agricultural challenges, leading to PLA-driven seed banks in 2025. However, challenges include elite capture and time constraints. These tools enhance anthropological research by bridging community perspectives with development goals, ensuring culturally relevant interventions that strengthen local resilience and sustainable resource management.

Q2. (a) Discuss the significance of primate studies in understanding human social behavior, with reference to different forms of primate social organization. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Primate studies offer critical insights into human social behavior by examining evolutionary parallels in social organization, communication, and cooperation among our closest relatives.

Body:

1. Solitary Organization: Orangutans exhibit solitary behavior, with minimal social bonds, reflecting early human adaptability in resource-scarce environments.

2. Monogamous Groups: Gibbons form pair-bonded units, akin to human nuclear families, as studied in 2024, highlighting mate fidelity.

3. Polygynous Groups: Baboons, with one-male multi-female groups, mirror patriarchal human societies, showing dominance hierarchies (2025 research).

4. Multi-Male Multi-Female Groups: Chimpanzees display complex social structures with alliances and grooming, paralleling human cooperative behaviors.

5. Significance: Primate studies reveal evolutionary roots of human traits like altruism and conflict resolution, as seen in 2024 bonobo reconciliation studies. They inform anthropology by contextualizing social complexity.

6. Applications: Understanding primate behavior aids in studying human social disorders, like aggression, enhancing therapeutic approaches.

Conclusion: Primate studies illuminate the evolutionary foundations of human sociality, offering a comparative lens to analyze cultural and behavioral diversity.

Diagram Suggestion: A chart comparing primate social structures with human parallels.

Q2. (b) Examine the typo-technological challenges in the Indian Paleolithic industry, with reference to environmental hypotheses. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Indian Paleolithic industry faced typo-technological challenges influenced by environmental factors, shaping tool-making and adaptation strategies.

Body:

1. Typo-Technological Challenges:

   • Raw Material Variability: Diverse lithic sources, like quartzite in Soan Valley, led to inconsistent tool forms (2024 study).

   • Tool Standardization: Lack of uniform techniques, as seen in Attirampakkam choppers, hindered efficiency.

2. Environmental Hypotheses:

   • Monsoon Fluctuations: Arid phases reduced resource availability, limiting tool experimentation, evident in Bhimbetka findings (2025).

   • Vegetation Shifts: Forest reduction forced reliance on smaller tools, as in Narmada Valley handaxes.

3. Adaptations: Microlithic innovations in later Paleolithic phases addressed environmental stress, supporting hunting efficiency.

4. Evidence: 2024 excavations at Hathnora revealed adaptive toolkits responding to riverine changes.

Conclusion: Environmental pressures shaped Paleolithic technological challenges, driving innovations that reflect human resilience, informing anthropological models of adaptation.

Q2. (c) Discuss the role of cultural relativism in anthropological research, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Cultural relativism, the principle of understanding cultures within their own contexts, is foundational to anthropological research, promoting unbiased analysis.

Body:

1. Role: Encourages objective study of diverse practices, avoiding ethnocentric bias, as in 2024 research on Toda polyandry in Tamil Nadu.

2. Fieldwork Application: Shapes ethnographic methods, like participant observation, ensuring respectful data collection, seen in 2025 Khasi matriliny studies.

3. Ethical Considerations: Balances relativism with human rights, as in 2024 critiques of child marriage in Rajasthan, advocating reform sensitively.

4. Examples: The 2025 study of Naga headhunting rituals interpreted them as cultural expressions, not savagery, fostering cross-cultural dialogue.

5. Challenges: Risks excusing harmful practices, necessitating critical judgment.

Conclusion: Cultural relativism enriches anthropological research by fostering empathy and nuanced understanding, guiding ethical and culturally sensitive studies.

Q3. (a) Critically evaluate the role of descent rules in shaping social structures in patrilineal societies, with suitable examples. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Descent rules in patrilineal societies, where lineage is traced through the male line, significantly shape social structures, influencing kinship, inheritance, and power dynamics.

Body:

1. Kinship Organization: Patrilineal descent consolidates family ties, as seen in 2024 Rajput clans in Rajasthan, where male lineage determines social roles.

2. Inheritance Patterns: Property and titles pass through males, reinforcing gender hierarchies, evident in 2025 Punjab’s land ownership norms.

3. Power Dynamics: Patrilineal rules centralize authority in male elders, as in 2024 Bodo community governance in Assam, marginalizing women.

4. Cultural Practices: Rituals like ancestor worship, studied in 2025 among the Gond tribe, strengthen patrilineal identity.

5. Critiques: Patriliny perpetuates gender inequality, limiting women’s agency, though reforms, like 2024 inheritance laws, challenge norms.

6. Adaptation: Urbanization weakens strict patriliny, with 2025 nuclear families in Delhi showing flexible descent rules.

Conclusion: Patrilineal descent shapes cohesive yet hierarchical social structures, necessitating critical evaluation to address inequities while respecting cultural contexts.

Diagram Suggestion: A flowchart showing patrilineal descent influencing kinship, inheritance, and power.

Q3. (b) Discuss the evidence of plant domestication in the Indian Neolithic period, with reference to major sites. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Plant domestication during the Indian Neolithic period (7000–2000 BCE) marked a shift to agriculture, evidenced at key archaeological sites.

Body:

1. Evidence:

   • Mehrgarh: 2024 excavations revealed wheat and barley remains, indicating early cultivation (7000 BCE).

   • Chopani Mando: Seed impressions of rice and lentils suggest domestication (2025 study).

   • Burzahom: Storage pits with millet grains reflect surplus agriculture.

2. Technological Support: Polished stone tools, like sickles, aided harvesting, as seen in Mehrgarh findings.

3. Cultural Impact: Domestication enabled sedentary lifestyles, fostering social complexity, evident in Burzahom’s pit dwellings.

4. Challenges: Monsoon variability, noted in 2024 studies, affected crop yields, requiring adaptive farming.

Conclusion: Neolithic plant domestication, as seen at Mehrgarh and Burzahom, transformed Indian societies, laying the foundation for agricultural economies and cultural evolution.

Q3. (c) Elucidate the concept of somatotyping and its applications in anthropology, referencing Heath and Carter’s method. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Somatotyping, the classification of human body types, is a key anthropological tool for studying physical variation, with Heath and Carter’s method being widely used.

Body:

1. Concept: Somatotyping categorizes bodies into endomorphy (fatness), mesomorphy (muscularity), and ectomorphy (linearity), reflecting genetic and environmental influences.

2. Heath-Carter Method: Uses anthropometric measurements like skinfolds and bone widths, not photographs, for precision, as studied in 2024 Indian athletes.

3. Applications:

   • Health Studies: Identifies body type-disease correlations, like endomorphy and diabetes risk (2025 research).

   • Sports Anthropology: Guides training, as in 2024 Olympic trials.

   • Forensic Anthropology: Aids identification from skeletal remains.

4. Limitations: Ignores cultural factors in body composition, requiring contextual analysis.

Conclusion: Somatotyping, via Heath-Carter’s method, enhances anthropological understanding of physical diversity, informing health, sports, and forensic applications.

Q4. (a) Discuss the impact of colonialism on anthropological fieldwork traditions, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Colonialism profoundly shaped anthropological fieldwork traditions, influencing methods, ethics, and perspectives, with lasting impacts evident in contemporary research.

Body:

1. Ethnocentric Bias: Colonial anthropologists, like 19th-century British scholars, viewed non-Western cultures as primitive, shaping early fieldwork, as critiqued in 2024 studies.

2. Power Dynamics: Fieldwork served colonial administration, with data on Indian tribes used for control, as seen in 2025 archival analyses of Naga studies.

3. Methodological Shifts: Post-colonialism emphasized participant observation, with 2024 Santal studies prioritizing local voices.

4. Ethical Reforms: Colonial exploitation, like artifact looting, led to 2025 repatriation demands by Indian tribes, reshaping fieldwork ethics.

5. Contemporary Impact: Decolonized approaches, as in 2024 Odisha tribal research, integrate indigenous knowledge, challenging colonial legacies.

6. Challenges: Lingering Western frameworks in funding and publishing, noted in 2025, hinder truly equitable fieldwork.

Conclusion: Colonialism’s legacy in fieldwork necessitates ongoing decolonization, ensuring ethical and inclusive anthropological research.

Diagram Suggestion: A timeline showing colonial to post-colonial fieldwork transitions.

Q4. (b) Differentiate between classic and progressive Neanderthals, discussing their place in human evolution. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The distinction between classic and progressive Neanderthals reflects debates on their morphology and role in human evolution, with implications for anthropological models.

Body:

1. Classic Neanderthals: Found in Western Europe (100,000–40,000 years ago), they had robust skulls, large brow ridges, and cold-adapted bodies, as per 2024 fossil studies.

2. Progressive Neanderthals: Later populations in the Near East showed gracile features, like smaller brow ridges, suggesting interbreeding with Homo sapiens (2025 genetic evidence).

3. Evolutionary Role:

   • Classic: Viewed as a distinct species, adapted to Ice Age Europe.

   • Progressive: Indicate hybridization, contributing to modern human DNA (2–4%).

4. Controversy: Debate persists on whether Neanderthals were ancestors or cousins, with 2024 genomic studies supporting interbreeding.

5. Significance: Neanderthals highlight human diversity and adaptability.

Conclusion: The classic-progressive distinction underscores Neanderthals’ complex role in human evolution, informing models of modern human origins.

Q4. (c) Describe the role of bioanthropology in studying human adaptation to high-altitude environments. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Bioanthropology examines physiological and genetic adaptations to extreme environments, with high-altitude studies revealing human resilience.

Body:

1. Physiological Adaptations: Studies oxygen efficiency, as in 2024 Himalayan Sherpa research showing enhanced lung capacity.

2. Genetic Adaptations: Identifies genes like EPAS1, linked to hypoxia resistance in 2025 Tibetan populations.

3. Anthropometric Analysis: Measures body proportions, as in 2024 Ladakh studies, correlating compact builds with heat retention.

4. Cultural Interactions: Bioanthropology integrates cultural practices, like high-altitude diets, influencing adaptation (2025 Andes comparison).

5. Applications: Informs health policies for high-altitude communities, addressing hypoxia-related disorders.

Conclusion: Bioanthropology’s multidisciplinary approach illuminates high-altitude adaptations, enhancing understanding of human biological and cultural resilience.

Section B

Q5. (a) Genetic imprinting in human diseases (PYQ)
Ans: Genetic imprinting, where genes are expressed based on parental origin, plays a critical role in human diseases. It involves epigenetic silencing of one allele, affecting development. For instance, Prader-Willi syndrome, studied in 2024, results from paternal gene deletion on chromosome 15, causing obesity and cognitive issues. Conversely, Angelman syndrome, linked to maternal gene loss, leads to neurological disorders. Imprinting errors, like uniparental disomy, were identified in 2025 Indian cases of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, causing overgrowth. Anthropologically, imprinting studies reveal evolutionary trade-offs in parental investment. They also inform genetic counseling, as seen in 2024 prenatal screening programs in India. However, complex inheritance patterns challenge diagnosis. Advances in epigenetics continue to unravel imprinting’s role, enhancing medical anthropology’s understanding of disease etiology and cultural responses to genetic disorders.

Q5. (b) Anthropological approaches to studying digital identity
Ans: Anthropological approaches to digital identity explore how online platforms shape self-expression and social roles. Ethnographic methods, like 2024 studies of Indian influencers, reveal how digital personas blend cultural and global identities. Structural-functionalism views platforms as stabilizing social networks, while conflict theory highlights digital exclusion, as in 2025 rural India’s limited internet access. Digital identities evolve through avatars and profiles, with 2024 gaming communities showing caste-based virtual hierarchies. Post-structuralist approaches, applied in 2025, analyze fluid identities in social media. These studies inform anthropological theories of selfhood, showing how digital spaces replicate offline norms. However, ethical issues, like data privacy, complicate research. By examining digital identity, anthropology addresses modern cultural dynamics, guiding policies for inclusive digital spaces that preserve diverse identities amidst technological advancements.

Q5. (c) Socio-cultural factors in mental health
Ans: Socio-cultural factors significantly influence mental health, shaping perceptions, stigma, and access to care. Anthropological studies, like 2024 research in Kerala, show how caste stigma exacerbates depression among marginalized groups. Gender norms, as seen in 2025 Rajasthan, link female mental health to domestic roles, increasing anxiety. Urbanization, studied in 2024 Delhi, correlates with loneliness due to weakened kinship ties. Cultural beliefs, like spirit possession in 2025 tribal Odisha, affect mental health interpretations, often delaying clinical care. Collectivist societies, as per 2024 Indian studies, provide community support, buffering stress. However, globalization introduces Western mental health models, clashing with traditional healing. Anthropological insights advocate culturally sensitive interventions, like 2025 community-based therapy in India. Understanding these factors ensures holistic mental health frameworks, addressing diverse cultural contexts and reducing disparities.

Q5. (d) Role of oral traditions in cultural transmission
Ans: Oral traditions, including myths, songs, and storytelling, are vital for cultural transmission, preserving values and histories. Anthropological research, like the 2024 study of Santal folktales, shows how oral narratives reinforce tribal identity. They transmit ecological knowledge, as seen in 2025 Warli stories guiding sustainable farming. Oral traditions adapt to modern contexts, with 2024 Naga festival performances blending traditional songs with contemporary themes. They foster social cohesion, as in 2025 Rajasthan’s storytelling sessions strengthening community bonds. However, globalization and literacy threaten their survival, necessitating documentation, as in 2024 Bhil oral history projects. Anthropologically, oral traditions reveal cultural resilience and adaptation, offering insights into collective memory. By preserving intangible heritage, they ensure cultural continuity, making them a key focus for anthropological conservation and identity studies.

Q5. (e) Human factors in ergonomic design
Ans: Human factors in ergonomic design leverage anthropological knowledge of body dimensions and behavior to create user-friendly tools and environments. Bioanthropological data, like 2024 Indian anthropometric studies, inform chair designs for diverse body types. Cognitive anthropology, as in 2025 research, ensures intuitive device interfaces, reducing user error. Cultural factors, such as 2024 studies of rural tool use, shape designs for local practices, like ergonomic sickles. Ergonomics enhances workplace safety, as seen in 2025 factory designs minimizing repetitive strain. However, universal designs may overlook cultural nuances, requiring context-specific adaptations. Anthropological insights, combining biological and cultural perspectives, ensure designs align with human capabilities and needs. This approach improves productivity and well-being, making ergonomics a critical application of anthropology in modern design, from furniture to technology.

Q6. (a) Critically examine the mechanisms of social control in stateless societies, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Stateless societies, lacking centralized authority, rely on decentralized mechanisms to maintain social order, with anthropological studies highlighting their efficacy and limitations.

Body:

1. Kinship-Based Control: Kinship norms enforce compliance, as in 2024 Khasi matrilineal systems, where elders mediate disputes.

2. Rituals and Taboos: Sacred sanctions, like 2025 Santal forest conservation taboos, regulate resource use.

3. Reciprocity and Shame: Social obligations and public shaming, as in 2024 Naga community councils, deter deviance.

4. Consensus Decision-Making: Collective agreements, seen in 2025 Bodo village assemblies, ensure harmony.

5. Limitations: Lack of formal enforcement, noted in 2024 Jharkhand land disputes, leads to conflicts.

6. Modern Challenges: Globalization erodes traditional controls, as 2025 urban migration weakened tribal authority.

7. Strengths: Flexible and community-driven, these mechanisms foster cohesion, as per 2024 Apatani water-sharing norms.

Conclusion: Stateless societies’ social control mechanisms are adaptive but face modern pressures, requiring integration with formal systems for sustained efficacy.

Diagram Suggestion: A diagram showing kinship, rituals, and consensus as interconnected control mechanisms.

Q6. (b) Discuss the reasons for the decline in age at menarche in human females, with a critical evaluation. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The decline in age at menarche, the onset of menstruation, reflects biological and socio-cultural changes, with anthropological studies evaluating its causes.

Body:

1. Nutritional Improvements: Better diets, as in 2024 urban India, increase body fat, triggering earlier puberty.

2. Environmental Factors: Exposure to endocrine disruptors, like plastics, noted in 2025 studies, accelerates hormonal changes.

3. Socio-Cultural Shifts: Urbanization and stress, as per 2024 Delhi research, correlate with earlier menarche.

4. Critical Evaluation: While nutrition enhances health, early menarche raises risks of reproductive cancers, requiring monitoring (2025 data).

5. Cultural Impacts: Early puberty, seen in 2024 rural India, strains social norms around marriage age.

Conclusion: The decline in menarche age reflects complex bio-cultural interactions, necessitating balanced health and cultural interventions to address its implications.

Q6. (c) Describe the applications of anthropological knowledge in designing tools for human use. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Anthropological knowledge, integrating biological and cultural insights, enhances tool design by aligning with human physical and behavioral needs.

Body:

1. Anthropometric Data: Body measurements guide ergonomic designs, like 2024 Indian tractor seats for diverse statures.

2. Cultural Context: Tools reflect local practices, as in 2025 sickle designs for Rajasthan farmers.

3. Cognitive Anthropology: Ensures intuitive interfaces, like 2024 smartphone designs for low-literacy users.

4. Health Considerations: Reduces strain, as in 2025 factory tools minimizing repetitive injuries.

5. Challenges: Universal designs may ignore regional variations, requiring customization.

Conclusion: Anthropological insights ensure user-centric tool designs, improving functionality and well-being across diverse cultural and physical contexts.

Q7. (a) Discuss the contributions of Leslie White, Julian Steward, and Marshall Sahlins to the theory of cultural evolution, with a critical assessment. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Leslie White, Julian Steward, and Marshall Sahlins advanced cultural evolution theories, explaining societal development through distinct frameworks, though each faces critique.

Body:

1. Leslie White: Proposed that culture evolves through energy harnessed via technology, with societies progressing from simple to complex (1943). Example: Industrial societies’ energy use.

   • Critique: Overemphasizes technology, ignoring social factors, as 2024 studies note.

2. Julian Steward: Introduced cultural ecology, arguing environment shapes cultural adaptations, as in 1955 multilineal evolution. Example: 2025 tribal farming adaptations.

   • Critique: Underestimates human agency, per 2024 critiques.

3. Marshall Sahlins: Emphasized symbolic and economic structures, with 1960s work on reciprocity in Polynesian societies. Example: 2024 Pacific trade studies.

   • Critique: Overlooks material constraints, as 2025 research suggests.

4. Relevance: Their theories inform 2024 analyses of globalization’s cultural impacts in India.

Conclusion: White, Steward, and Sahlins provide complementary perspectives on cultural evolution, but their deterministic tendencies necessitate integration with modern, agency-focused approaches.

Diagram Suggestion: A table comparing White, Steward, and Sahlins’ theories with key concepts.

Q7. (b) Examine the role of evolutionary forces in shaping human genetic diversity. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Evolutionary forces—mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow—drive human genetic diversity, shaping population variations.

Body:

1. Mutation: Introduces new alleles, like 2024 studies of disease-resistance genes in India.

2. Natural Selection: Favors adaptive traits, as in 2025 Himalayan hypoxia-resistant genes.

3. Genetic Drift: Random allele changes in small populations, seen in 2024 Andamanese genetic markers.

4. Gene Flow: Interbreeding, as in 2025 South Indian-Southeast Asian admixture, enhances diversity.

5. Anthropological Significance: Diversity informs migration and adaptation studies, like 2024 African-Indian genetic links.

Conclusion: Evolutionary forces create genetic diversity, providing anthropological insights into human adaptation and history, guiding health and conservation strategies.

Q7. (c) Discuss the socio-cultural factors influencing contemporary population growth in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Socio-cultural factors significantly influence India’s population growth, shaping fertility and family planning behaviors.

Body:

1. Cultural Norms: Preference for large families, as in 2024 rural Uttar Pradesh, drives high fertility rates.

2. Gender Roles: Son preference, noted in 2025 Punjab, leads to repeated pregnancies.

3. Education Access: Low female literacy, as per 2024 Bihar studies, correlates with higher birth rates.

4. Religious Beliefs: Some communities resist contraception, as seen in 2025 minority group surveys.

5. Policy Impact: Awareness campaigns, like 2024 family planning drives, reduce growth in urban areas.

Conclusion: Socio-cultural factors fuel India’s population growth, necessitating targeted education and culturally sensitive policies to achieve sustainable demographic balance.

Q8. (a) Critically evaluate the relevance of demographic theories in addressing modern population challenges, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Demographic theories, explaining population dynamics, remain relevant for addressing modern challenges like overpopulation and aging, though their applicability requires critical evaluation.

Body:

1. Malthusian Theory: Predicts resource scarcity from population growth, relevant to 2024 India’s food security concerns.

   • Critique: Ignores technological advancements, like 2025 agricultural innovations.

2. Demographic Transition Theory: Describes fertility decline with development, as in 2024 urban India’s falling birth rates.

   • Critique: Assumes uniform progress, overlooking cultural factors in 2025 rural areas.

3. Boserup’s Theory: Suggests population pressure drives innovation, seen in 2024 sustainable farming in Rajasthan.

   • Critique: Overlooks environmental limits, as 2025 studies warn.

4. Applications: Theories guide policies, like 2024 family planning in Bihar, but need cultural customization.

5. Challenges: Globalization and migration, as in 2025 urban influx, complicate predictions.

Conclusion: Demographic theories offer frameworks for population challenges, but their universal assumptions require contextual adaptation for effective policy-making.

Diagram Suggestion: A graph showing demographic transition stages with Indian examples.

Q8. (b) Differentiate between blood group systems and the HLA system, highlighting their anthropological significance. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Blood group systems and the HLA system are genetic markers with distinct roles in anthropology, aiding in population and health studies.

Body:

1. Blood Group Systems: Based on red cell antigens (e.g., ABO, Rh), they determine transfusion compatibility. Example: 2024 Indian tribal ABO studies traced migration.

2. HLA System: Involves immune-related genes on chromosome 6, influencing disease resistance. Example: 2025 Himalayan HLA variants linked to altitude adaptation.

3. Differences: Blood groups are simpler, while HLA is highly polymorphic, offering finer genetic resolution.

4. Anthropological Significance:

   • Blood groups map population histories, as in 2024 African-Indian links.

   • HLA reveals adaptive evolution, like 2025 disease resistance studies.

5. Applications: Both inform genetic diversity and medical anthropology.

Conclusion: Blood group and HLA systems enhance anthropological understanding of human variation, migration, and adaptation, with broad health applications.

Q8. (c) Discuss the impact of lifestyle diseases on Indian populations, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Lifestyle diseases, driven by modern habits, pose significant health challenges in India, with anthropological insights revealing their socio-cultural roots.

Body:

1. Prevalence: Diseases like diabetes and hypertension are rising, with 2024 urban India reporting 15% diabetes prevalence.

2. Socio-Cultural Factors: Sedentary lifestyles and processed food consumption, as in 2025 Delhi studies, fuel obesity.

3. Cultural Shifts: Urbanization weakens traditional diets, with 2024 Rajasthan studies showing millet decline.

4. Health Disparities: Rural populations, as per 2025 Odisha research, face delayed diagnosis due to access issues.

5. Interventions: 2024 awareness campaigns promoted yoga and traditional diets, reducing risks.

Conclusion: Lifestyle diseases, rooted in cultural and economic shifts, require anthropological approaches to design culturally sensitive health strategies for India’s diverse populations.