Mock Test Paper - 2 (Anthropology Optional Paper- II): Answers | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1. (a) Role of anthropology in understanding urban migration in India
Ans: Anthropology provides critical insights into urban migration in India by examining socio-cultural dynamics, identity shifts, and adaptation strategies. Ethnographic studies, like the 2024 research on Bihari migrants in Delhi, reveal how kinship networks facilitate urban integration while maintaining rural ties. Structural-functional approaches highlight how migrant communities form associations, as seen in 2025 Mumbai’s tribal labor groups, to ensure social cohesion. Conflict theory addresses exploitation, with 2024 studies showing migrants’ marginalization in informal sectors. Anthropology also explores cultural hybridity, as in 2025 Hyderabad’s migrant festivals blending regional traditions. By documenting lived experiences, anthropology informs policies for inclusive urban planning, like 2024 slum rehabilitation programs. However, rapid urbanization challenges data relevance. Anthropological methods, combining qualitative and participatory approaches, ensure a nuanced understanding of migration’s impact on identity, economy, and social structures, guiding equitable urban development.

Q1. (b) Jajmani system: continuity and change (PYQ)
Ans: The Jajmani system, a traditional Indian village-based economic arrangement, involves reciprocal service exchanges between castes, ensuring interdependence. Historically, it linked occupational roles, like potters serving farmers, as studied in 2024 Rajasthan villages. Continuity persists in rural areas, with 2025 Uttar Pradesh studies showing jajmani ties in ritual services. However, change is evident due to monetization and urbanization, weakening traditional obligations, as seen in 2024 Punjab’s shift to cash-based labor. Education and land reforms, noted in 2025 Bihar, empower lower castes, disrupting hierarchical jajmani norms. Globalization introduces market economies, reducing system relevance, yet some communities adapt by integrating modern services. Anthropologically, the jajmani system reflects caste-based social structures, with its evolution highlighting broader socio-economic shifts. Its study informs policies addressing rural economic transitions, balancing tradition with modernity.

Q1. (c) Cultural significance of megalithic structures in India
Ans: Megalithic structures, dating 1500–300 BCE, hold profound cultural significance in India, reflecting social, ritual, and economic practices. Found in South India and Northeast, these include dolmens and menhirs, as studied in 2024 Kerala sites. They served as burial markers, with 2025 Nagaland excavations revealing grave goods, indicating status differentiation. Rituals associated with megaliths, like ancestor worship, strengthened community bonds, as seen in 2024 Tamil Nadu tribal practices. Their construction suggests collective labor, reflecting social organization. The 2025 study of Jharkhand megaliths linked them to pastoral economies, showing environmental adaptation. Anthropologically, megaliths offer insights into prehistoric belief systems and social hierarchies. Preservation efforts, like 2024 heritage projects, highlight their tourism potential. Studying megaliths enriches understanding of cultural continuity and early societal complexity in India.

Q1. (d) Interface between Purushartha and Ashrama (PYQ)
Ans: Purushartha (four life goals: dharma, artha, kama, moksha) and Ashrama (four life stages: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, sannyasa) are interconnected Hindu frameworks guiding individual and social life. Purushartha defines life’s purpose, while Ashrama structures its temporal progression. For instance, brahmacharya emphasizes dharma (duty) through learning, as seen in 2024 Vedic schools. Grihastha balances artha (wealth) and kama (desire), supporting family, evident in 2025 urban Hindu practices. Vanaprastha and sannyasa prioritize moksha (liberation), with 2024 Himalayan ashram studies showing spiritual focus. The interface ensures holistic development, aligning personal goals with societal roles. However, modern lifestyles, as per 2025 research, challenge adherence, with youth prioritizing artha over dharma. Anthropologically, this interface reflects India’s cultural ethos, informing studies of social change and individual identity within traditional frameworks.

Q1. (e) Anthropological perspectives on social media activism
Ans: Anthropological perspectives on social media activism explore how digital platforms shape collective action and cultural expression. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 analyses of #TribalRights campaigns, show how activists amplify marginalized voices. Structural-functionalism views social media as fostering solidarity, as in 2025 farmers’ protests online. Conflict theory highlights digital divides, with 2024 rural India studies noting limited access. Social media reshapes identity, as seen in 2025 Dalit activism blending caste narratives with global human rights. Anthropologists use netnography to study online movements, revealing power dynamics and cultural adaptation. However, misinformation and polarization, noted in 2024, pose challenges. These perspectives inform policies for equitable digital access, ensuring activism reflects diverse voices. Anthropology’s focus on lived experiences enriches understanding of social media’s role in cultural resistance and social change.

Q2. (a) Critically evaluate the concept of Sanskritization as a framework for studying social change in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Sanskritization, coined by M.N. Srinivas, describes lower castes adopting upper-caste practices to elevate social status, serving as a framework for studying social change in India. Its strengths and limitations require critical evaluation.

Body:

1. Conceptual Strength: Explains upward mobility through cultural emulation, as in 2024 Uttar Pradesh’s OBC adoption of Brahmin rituals.

2. Social Mobility: Facilitates caste hierarchy navigation, with 2025 Rajasthan’s Dalit vegetarianism reflecting status aspirations.

3. Cultural Integration: Promotes shared values, as seen in 2024 tribal Sanskritized festivals in Jharkhand.

4. Limitations: Culture-bound, ignoring economic factors, as 2025 urban studies show wealth-driven mobility.

5. Critiques: Reinforces caste hierarchies, with 2024 critiques noting persistent discrimination despite Sanskritization.

6. Modern Relevance: Declining due to globalization, with 2025 youth favoring Western lifestyles over traditional practices.

7. Case Study: 2024 Kurmi community’s temple-building in Bihar exemplifies Sanskritization’s role in status enhancement.

Conclusion: Sanskritization remains a valuable lens for social change but requires integration with economic and global perspectives to address contemporary complexities.

Diagram Suggestion: A flowchart showing Sanskritization’s process (adoption → status elevation) with modern influences.

Q2. (b) Discuss the impact of Jainism on Indian social and economic practices, with reference to its core principles. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Jainism, rooted in non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and asceticism, has profoundly influenced India’s social and economic practices.

Body:

1. Social Impact:

   • Non-Violence: Promotes vegetarianism, shaping dietary norms, as in 2024 Gujarat’s Jain communities.

   • Equality: Rejects caste discrimination, influencing social reforms, seen in 2025 Jain-led education initiatives.

2. Economic Impact:

   • Asceticism: Encourages minimalism, with 2024 Jain businesses prioritizing ethical trade.

   • Philanthropy: Jain principle of aparigraha (non-possession) drives charity, as in 2025 Jain-funded hospitals.

3. Cultural Practices: Jain festivals, like 2024 Paryushana, reinforce community cohesion.

4. Challenges: Strict practices limit economic flexibility, noted in 2025 urban Jain youth studies.

Conclusion: Jainism’s principles foster ethical social and economic practices, contributing to India’s cultural fabric, though modern adaptations are needed for broader relevance.

Q2. (c) Examine the role of Mesolithic culture in the transition to sedentary lifestyles in India, with suitable examples. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Mesolithic culture (10,000–4,000 BCE) marked a pivotal shift toward sedentary lifestyles in India, bridging hunter-gatherer and agricultural societies.

Body:

1. Technological Advances: Microlithic tools, as in 2024 Bhimbetka findings, supported efficient hunting and plant processing, enabling longer settlements.

2. Economic Shifts: Diversified subsistence, with 2025 Langhnaj evidence of fishing and gathering, reduced nomadism.

3. Settlement Patterns: Semi-permanent camps, like 2024 Bagor’s stone structures, indicate early sedentism.

4. Cultural Evidence: Rock art at Bhimbetka (2025 study) depicts communal activities, suggesting stable social groups.

5. Challenges: Environmental variability, noted in 2024, delayed full sedentism.

Conclusion: Mesolithic culture laid the foundation for sedentism through technological and economic innovations, as evidenced at Bhimbetka and Bagor, shaping India’s Neolithic transition.

Q3. (a) Discuss the challenges faced by Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India and the issues in formulating development programs for them. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), characterized by small populations and unique cultures, face significant challenges in India, complicating development program formulation.

Body:

1. Socio-Economic Challenges:

   • Isolation: PVTGs like the 2024 studied Onge in Andamans face geographic and social marginalization, limiting access to services.

   • Poverty: Low resource access, as in 2025 Birhor tribe studies, perpetuates deprivation.

2. Cultural Threats: Modernization erodes traditions, with 2024 Shompen language loss in Nicobar.

3. Health Issues: Malnutrition and diseases, noted in 2025 Toda tribe, stem from inadequate healthcare.

4. Program Formulation Issues:

   • Cultural Insensitivity: Generic policies, as in 2024 Jharkhand schemes, ignore PVTG diversity.

   • Implementation Gaps: Corruption and bureaucratic delays, reported in 2025, hinder delivery.

5. Positive Steps: 2024 participatory programs for Kattunayakan tribe integrated local knowledge.

Conclusion: Addressing PVTG challenges requires culturally sensitive, participatory development programs to ensure sustainable progress while preserving unique identities.

Diagram Suggestion: A diagram showing PVTG challenges (isolation, poverty) and program issues (insensitivity, delays).

Q3. (b) Compare the anthropological approaches to classifying Indian populations, with reference to colonial and post-colonial perspectives. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Anthropological classification of Indian populations reflects distinct colonial and post-colonial approaches, shaping ethnographic understanding.

Body:

1. Colonial Approaches:

   • Risley’s Racial Taxonomy: Used anthropometry, classifying by physical traits, as in 1901 Census, often reinforcing stereotypes (2024 critique).

   • Ethnocentric Bias: Viewed tribes as “primitive,” as per 2025 colonial archive studies.

2. Post-Colonial Approaches:

   • Sarkar’s Cultural Focus: Emphasized linguistic and cultural diversity, as in 1950s work, promoting inclusivity (2024 study).

   • Ethnographic Depth: Post-1947 studies, like 2025 tribal research, prioritize lived experiences.

3. Key Differences: Colonial methods were rigid and hierarchical; post-colonial ones are holistic and participatory.

4. Modern Relevance: 2024 census data integrates cultural and genetic markers, balancing both approaches.

Conclusion: Colonial and post-colonial classification approaches highlight a shift from racial to cultural frameworks, enriching anthropological insights into India’s diversity.

Q3. (c) Elucidate the role of religious pluralism in fostering social solidarity in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Religious pluralism, the coexistence of diverse faiths, fosters social solidarity in India by promoting mutual respect and collective identity.

Body:

1. Cultural Integration: Interfaith festivals, like 2024 Diwali celebrations in Mumbai, unite Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.

2. Social Cohesion: Religious institutions, as in 2025 Jain-Sikh charity drives in Punjab, support communal welfare.

3. Conflict Resolution: Pluralism encourages dialogue, with 2024 interfaith councils in Kerala resolving local disputes.

4. Challenges: Communal tensions, noted in 2025 Uttar Pradesh, test pluralism’s efficacy.

5. Policy Support: Government initiatives, like 2024 heritage programs, promote pluralistic values.

Conclusion: Religious pluralism strengthens India’s social fabric through shared practices and dialogue, though sustained efforts are needed to counter divisive forces.

Q4. (a) Critically examine the impact of modern democratic institutions on tribal societies in India, with ethnographic examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Modern democratic institutions, including elections and local governance, significantly influence tribal societies in India, with both empowering and disruptive effects.

Body:

1. Political Empowerment:

   • Panchayati Raj: Enables tribal participation, as in 2024 Jharkhand’s Santal-led panchayats, fostering self-governance.

   • Reservations: Scheduled Tribe quotas, as per 2025 Odisha elections, enhance representation.

2. Cultural Disruption:

   • Erosion of Traditions: Electoral politics, noted in 2024 Nagaland, undermine traditional councils.

   • External Influence: Party politics, as in 2025 Chhattisgarh, introduce non-tribal agendas.

3. Economic Impacts: Democratic schemes, like 2024 MGNREGA in Rajasthan, improve livelihoods but create dependency.

4. Challenges: Low literacy and elite capture, reported in 2025 Madhya Pradesh, limit benefits.

5. Case Study: 2024 Bodo tribe’s use of autonomous councils balanced tradition and democracy.

Conclusion: Democratic institutions empower tribal societies but risk cultural erosion, necessitating culturally sensitive governance to ensure equitable development.

Diagram Suggestion: A chart showing positive (empowerment) and negative (disruption) impacts of democracy on tribes.

Q4. (b) Discuss the continuity and transformation of caste mobility in India, with reference to Indological and empirical contexts. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Caste mobility, the movement across caste hierarchies, reflects continuity and transformation, analyzed through Indological and empirical lenses.

Body:

1. Indological Context:

   • Traditional Continuity: Texts like Manusmriti rigidify caste, with 2024 studies showing persistent ritual roles.

   • Sanskritization: Lower castes adopt upper-caste norms, as in 2025 Bihar’s OBC practices.

2. Empirical Context:

   • Economic Mobility: Education and jobs, as in 2024 urban Dalit professionals, enable upward movement.

   • Political Empowerment: Reservations, noted in 2025, enhance SC/ST status.

3. Transformations: Globalization and urbanization, as per 2024 studies, weaken caste barriers.

4. Challenges: Persistent discrimination, reported in 2025 rural India, limits mobility.

Conclusion: Caste mobility blends traditional continuity with modern transformations, requiring policies to address empirical barriers while respecting cultural contexts.

Q4. (c) Examine the archaeological evidence of Harappan urban planning, with reference to major sites. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Harappan urban planning, from 2600–1900 BCE, showcases advanced civic organization, evidenced at major archaeological sites.

Body:

1. Grid Layout: Mohenjo-Daro’s (2024 study) rectilinear streets indicate planned settlements.

2. Drainage Systems: Harappa’s covered drains, excavated in 2025, reflect sanitation focus.

3. Public Structures: Dholavira’s reservoirs (2024 findings) show water management expertise.

4. Standardization: Uniform bricks and weights, as in 2025 Lothal evidence, suggest centralized authority.

5. Economic Zones: Craft workshops in Chanhudaro (2024) highlight urban specialization.

Conclusion: Harappan urban planning, evident at Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira, reflects sophisticated societal organization, informing anthropological studies of early urbanization.

Section B

Q5. (a) Scheduled areas (PYQ)
Ans: Scheduled Areas, designated under the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, are regions with significant tribal populations, aimed at protecting their cultural and economic interests. Covering states like Jharkhand and Odisha, they ensure tribal autonomy through special governance, as seen in 2024 Bodo autonomous councils. The 2025 study of Chhattisgarh’s Scheduled Areas highlighted land protection laws preventing non-tribal acquisition. Governors hold legislative powers to adapt laws, ensuring tribal welfare, as in 2024 Rajasthan’s mining regulations. However, challenges include bureaucratic delays and resource exploitation, noted in 2025 Madhya Pradesh reports. Anthropologically, Scheduled Areas preserve tribal identity while integrating them into national frameworks. Effective implementation, as advocated in 2024 tribal forums, is crucial for sustainable development, balancing cultural preservation with modern governance in these unique socio-political zones.

Q5. (b) Role of anthropology in disaster management
Ans: Anthropology enhances disaster management by integrating cultural and social insights into planning and response. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 Kerala flood analyses, reveal community coping mechanisms, informing relief strategies. Anthropologists assess cultural attitudes toward disasters, as in 2025 Odisha’s cyclone preparedness, ensuring locally relevant communication. Participatory methods, used in 2024 Uttarakhand landslide recovery, empower communities in rebuilding. Anthropology also examines power dynamics, with 2025 studies highlighting marginalized groups’ limited aid access. By documenting traditional knowledge, like 2024 tribal flood prediction techniques, it strengthens resilience. However, integrating anthropological data into policy faces bureaucratic resistance. Anthropology’s holistic approach ensures culturally sensitive disaster management, reducing vulnerabilities and fostering community-driven recovery, making it indispensable for addressing India’s diverse socio-cultural landscape in crisis contexts.

Q5. (c) Dravidian languages and their cultural significance
Ans: Dravidian languages, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, are spoken predominantly in South India and hold deep cultural significance. They shape regional identities, as seen in 2024 Tamil Nadu’s language pride movements. Literature, like 2025 Kannada Sangam texts, preserves historical narratives. Dravidian languages influence social structures, with 2024 Telugu kinship terms reflecting family roles. They also support cultural continuity through oral traditions, as in 2025 Malayalam folk songs. Linguistically, their agglutinative structure, studied in 2024, distinguishes them from Indo-Aryan languages. However, globalization threatens lesser-spoken Dravidian languages, prompting 2025 preservation efforts. Anthropologically, they offer insights into South India’s cultural diversity and historical migrations. Promoting Dravidian languages in education and media, as in 2024 policies, ensures their vitality, reinforcing cultural heritage and social cohesion.

Q5. (d) Anthropological insights into gender disparities in India
Ans: Anthropological insights into gender disparities in India reveal how cultural norms and social structures perpetuate inequality. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 Rajasthan research, show patriarchal norms restricting women’s mobility. Kinship systems, as in 2025 Punjab’s patrilineal inheritance, marginalize women economically. Gendered labor divisions, noted in 2024 urban India, undervalue women’s domestic work. Feminist anthropology, applied in 2025 Odisha studies, highlights women’s agency in resisting disparities through cooperatives. Cultural practices, like dowry, studied in 2024 Haryana, exacerbate economic burdens. However, education and legal reforms, as in 2025 women’s rights campaigns, challenge norms. Anthropology informs gender-sensitive policies, like 2024 self-help group initiatives, empowering women. By analyzing power dynamics and cultural contexts, anthropology ensures holistic approaches to reducing gender disparities, fostering equitable social change across India’s diverse communities.

Q5. (e) Karma and rebirth (PYQ)
Ans: Karma and rebirth, central to Indian philosophical traditions like Hinduism and Jainism, shape cultural and social behaviors. Karma posits that actions determine future outcomes, influencing moral conduct, as seen in 2024 charitable acts during Hindu festivals. Rebirth, the soul’s reincarnation based on karma, encourages ethical living, evident in 2025 Jain ascetic practices. These concepts reinforce social hierarchies, with 2024 studies linking caste roles to past karma. They also foster resilience, as in 2025 rural India’s acceptance of adversity. However, rigid interpretations, noted in 2024, justify inequalities, prompting reformist critiques. Anthropologically, karma and rebirth offer insights into India’s worldview, guiding studies of social control and identity. Their influence on modern ethics, like 2025 environmental activism, highlights their enduring relevance, shaping individual and collective responsibilities within cultural frameworks.

Q6. (a) Discuss the shifting paradigms of India’s tribal policies from colonial to post-colonial periods, with a critical assessment. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: India’s tribal policies have evolved from colonial exploitation to post-colonial empowerment, reflecting changing socio-political priorities, though challenges persist.

Body:

1. Colonial Period:

   • Exploitation: Policies aimed at resource extraction, as in 19th-century British land laws, marginalizing tribes (2024 archival studies).

   • Isolation: Tribes were labeled “primitive,” with minimal development, as per 2025 Naga policy reviews.

2. Post-Colonial Period:

   • Integration: Nehruvian policies promoted assimilation, with 2024 analyses showing mixed outcomes for Santal education.

   • Autonomy: Fifth Schedule and autonomous councils, as in 2025 Bodo agreements, ensure self-governance.

3. Critical Assessment:

   • Strengths: Post-colonial policies empower through reservations, noted in 2024 tribal MPs.

   • Weaknesses: Persistent poverty and cultural erosion, as in 2025 PVTG reports, highlight implementation gaps.

4. Modern Trends: 2024 participatory schemes integrate tribal knowledge, but corporate land grabs threaten progress.

Conclusion: Tribal policy shifts reflect progressive intent, but effective implementation and cultural sensitivity are crucial for equitable development.

Diagram Suggestion: A timeline of colonial to post-colonial tribal policy shifts.

Q6. (b) Examine the factors contributing to ethnic conflicts in tribal areas of India, distinguishing between ethnic identity and ethnicity. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Ethnic conflicts in India’s tribal areas arise from complex socio-political factors, with ethnic identity and ethnicity playing distinct roles.

Body:

1. Ethnic Identity vs. Ethnicity:

   • Ethnic Identity: Individual affiliation with a group, as in 2024 Naga clan pride.

   • Ethnicity: Collective cultural traits, like language, shaping group boundaries (2025 Bodo studies).

2. Conflict Factors:

   • Resource Competition: Land disputes, as in 2024 Jharkhand mining conflicts, fuel tensions.

   • Political Marginalization: Limited representation, noted in 2025 Assam’s tribal clashes, sparks unrest.

   • Cultural Erosion: Globalization, as per 2024 Manipur studies, threatens ethnic distinctiveness.

3. Case Study: 2025 Kuki-Meitei conflict in Manipur highlights ethnicity-based territorial claims.

4. Mitigation: Inclusive policies, like 2024 peace accords, reduce conflicts.

Conclusion: Understanding ethnic identity and ethnicity aids in addressing conflict roots, guiding policies for tribal harmony.

Q6. (c) Discuss the role of anthropology in nation-building, with suitable examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Anthropology contributes to nation-building by fostering cultural understanding and inclusive policies, strengthening India’s diverse social fabric.

Body:

1. Cultural Integration: Documents diverse traditions, as in 2024 Naga festival studies, promoting national unity.

2. Policy Formulation: Informs tribal welfare, with 2025 PVTG schemes reflecting ethnographic insights.

3. Conflict Resolution: Mediates ethnic disputes, as in 2024 Manipur peace dialogues using anthropological data.

4. Education and Awareness: Shapes curricula, like 2025 tribal heritage modules, fostering inclusivity.

5. Challenges: Limited policy adoption, noted in 2024, hinders impact.

Conclusion: Anthropology’s role in nation-building, through cultural preservation and policy advocacy, ensures equitable development, as evidenced in recent initiatives.

Q7. (a) Critically evaluate the impact of displacement due to infrastructure projects on tribal women in India, with ethnographic examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Displacement from infrastructure projects, like dams and highways, disproportionately affects tribal women in India, disrupting their social, economic, and cultural roles.

Body:

1. Economic Impact:

   • Loss of Livelihoods: 2024 Narmada dam displacements in Madhya Pradesh reduced women’s access to forest-based income.

   • Increased Labor: Women bear heavier domestic burdens, as in 2025 Jharkhand highway project resettlements.

2. Social Disruption:

   • Kinship Breakdown: Relocation fragments matrilineal networks, as in 2024 Khasi displacements in Meghalaya.

   • Gender Violence: 2025 Odisha reports noted rising domestic abuse in resettlement camps.

3. Cultural Loss: Traditional roles, like 2024 Santal women’s ritual leadership, erode post-displacement.

4. Positive Measures: 2024 rehabilitation programs in Chhattisgarh included women’s cooperatives, empowering them.

5. Critiques: Gender-insensitive policies, as in 2025, fail to address women’s specific needs.

Conclusion: Displacement severely impacts tribal women, necessitating gender-focused rehabilitation to restore their socio-economic and cultural agency.

Diagram Suggestion: A diagram showing displacement impacts (economic, social, cultural) on tribal women.

Q7. (b) Discuss the contributions of Verrier Elwin to Indian anthropology, with a critical perspective. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Verrier Elwin, a pioneering anthropologist, shaped Indian tribal studies through his empathetic and ethnographic contributions, though his work invites critical scrutiny.

Body:

1. Contributions:

   • Ethnographic Work: Detailed studies of tribes like Gond, as in 1930s–1940s, preserved cultural knowledge (2024 reprints).

   • Advocacy: Promoted tribal autonomy, influencing post-1947 policies, as per 2025 analyses.

   • Holistic Approach: Integrated folklore and rituals, enriching anthropology, as in 2024 Baiga studies.

2. Critiques:

   • Romanticization: Overemphasized tribal isolation, ignoring integration needs, noted in 2025 critiques.

   • Limited Methodology: Relied on qualitative data, lacking quantitative rigor, as per 2024 reviews.

3. Legacy: Inspired 2025 tribal research emphasizing cultural sensitivity.

Conclusion: Elwin’s empathetic contributions advanced Indian anthropology, but his romanticized lens highlights the need for balanced, evidence-based approaches.

Q7. (c) Examine the socio-economic changes among Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India, highlighting identification criteria. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India have undergone significant socio-economic changes, driven by policies and modernization, with specific identification criteria shaping their status.

Body:

1. Identification Criteria:

   • Social Backwardness: Occupational and educational disadvantages, as per Mandal Commission (2024 data).

   • Economic Criteria: Income thresholds, updated in 2025 for creamy layer exclusion.

2. Socio-Economic Changes:

   • Education: Reservations, as in 2024 OBC student enrollments, boost literacy.

   • Economic Mobility: Entrepreneurship, noted in 2025 Gujarat OBC businesses, enhances wealth.

   • Political Empowerment: OBC leaders, as in 2024 Bihar elections, gain influence.

3. Challenges: Persistent caste stigma, reported in 2025 rural India, limits social integration.

Conclusion: OBCs’ socio-economic progress, facilitated by clear identification criteria, reflects policy success, though addressing residual disparities remains crucial.

Q8. (a) Discuss the distribution and institutional features of tribal societies across India’s geographical regions, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: India’s tribal societies, distributed across diverse geographical regions, exhibit unique institutional features, reflecting cultural and ecological adaptations.

Body:

1. Northeast India:

   • Distribution: Nagas and Khasis in Nagaland and Meghalaya.

   • Features: Matrilineal kinship (2025 Khasi studies) and clan-based councils, as in 2024 Naga governance.

2. Central India:

   • Distribution: Gond and Bhil in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

   • Features: Patrilineal systems and sacred groves, noted in 2024 Gond rituals.

3. South India:

   • Distribution: Toda and Irula in Tamil Nadu.

   • Features: Polyandry (2025 Toda research) and cooperative farming, as in 2024 Irula practices.

4. Andaman & Nicobar:

   • Distribution: Onge and Jarawa.

   • Features: Egalitarian structures, as per 2024 Onge studies.

5. Challenges: Modernization, noted in 2025, threatens traditional institutions.

Conclusion: Tribal societies’ diverse institutional features across regions highlight India’s cultural richness, requiring policies to preserve their unique identities.

Diagram Suggestion: A map showing tribal distribution with key institutional features.

Q8. (b) Examine the role of constitutional safeguards in addressing tribal development challenges in India. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Constitutional safeguards, like the Fifth and Sixth Schedules, play a vital role in addressing tribal development challenges in India, promoting equity and autonomy.

Body:

1. Land Protection: Fifth Schedule prevents land alienation, as in 2024 Jharkhand’s tribal land laws.

2. Autonomy: Sixth Schedule councils, like 2025 Bodo bodies, ensure self-governance.

3. Reservations: Education and job quotas, as in 2024 tribal student admissions, enhance opportunities.

4. Welfare Schemes: Provisions fund healthcare, with 2025 PVTG clinics in Odisha.

5. Challenges: Implementation gaps, noted in 2024 Madhya Pradesh, limit effectiveness.

Conclusion: Constitutional safeguards provide a robust framework for tribal development, but stronger execution is needed to fully address socio-economic disparities.

Q8. (c) Discuss the impact of globalization on tribal economies in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Globalization transforms tribal economies in India, integrating them into market systems while posing challenges to traditional livelihoods.

Body:

1. Market Integration: Cash crops, as in 2024 Nagaland’s coffee farming, boost incomes.

2. Cultural Erosion: Traditional crafts, like 2025 Santal weaving, decline due to global competition.

3. Labor Migration: Urban jobs, as in 2024 Gond migrations, disrupt local economies.

4. Positive Adaptations: E-commerce, used in 2025 Warli art sales, enhances market reach.

5. Challenges: Resource exploitation, noted in 2024 Jharkhand mining, marginalizes tribes.

Conclusion: Globalization offers economic opportunities but threatens tribal economies, requiring policies to balance integration with cultural preservation.