Mock Test Paper - 3 (Anthropology Optional Paper- II): Answers | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1. (a) Anthropological insights into digital nomadism in India
Ans: Digital nomadism, involving remote work and mobility, is reshaping lifestyles in India, with anthropology offering insights into its socio-cultural impacts. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 research on Goan digital nomads, reveal how flexible work fosters cultural hybridity, blending global and local identities. Structural-functionalism highlights nomads’ contributions to local economies, as in 2025 Himachal Pradesh’s co-working spaces. Conflict theory notes urban-rural disparities, with 2024 studies showing limited internet access for rural nomads. Digital nomadism challenges traditional kinship, as seen in 2025 urban youth prioritizing mobility over family ties. Anthropologically, it reflects adaptation to globalization, informing policies for inclusive digital infrastructure, like 2024 rural connectivity drives. However, cultural alienation risks persist. Anthropology’s focus on lived experiences ensures a nuanced understanding of digital nomadism’s role in reshaping social structures and economic opportunities in India’s diverse contexts.

Q1. (b) Safeguards for linguistic minorities in India (PYQ)
Ans: Linguistic minorities in India, protected under the Constitution, benefit from safeguards ensuring cultural and educational rights. Articles 29 and 30 guarantee the right to preserve language and establish minority institutions, as seen in 2024 Tamil schools in Maharashtra. The Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities monitors implementation, with 2025 reports addressing Bodo language preservation in Assam. Official language policies promote multilingualism, like 2024 trilingual education in Karnataka. Special schemes, such as 2025 Santali script promotion in Jharkhand, support endangered languages. However, challenges include inadequate funding and dominant language hegemony, noted in 2024 Urdu community struggles. Anthropologically, these safeguards preserve cultural diversity, fostering social cohesion. Effective enforcement, as advocated in 2025 linguistic forums, is crucial for empowering minorities, ensuring their languages thrive within India’s pluralistic framework, and supporting national integration.

Q1. (c) Impact of tourism on tribal cultures
Ans: Tourism significantly impacts tribal cultures in India, offering economic benefits while threatening cultural integrity. Anthropological studies, like 2024 research on Nagaland’s Hornbill Festival, show how tourism boosts local economies through handicraft sales. However, commodification of traditions, as in 2025 Ladakh’s monastic dances, risks cultural dilution. Tourism disrupts social structures, with 2024 Andaman studies noting Jarawa exploitation via “human safaris.” Cultural adaptation occurs, as seen in 2025 Rajasthan’s tribal festivals blending modern elements to attract tourists. Anthropology advocates sustainable tourism, like 2024 community-led initiatives in Odisha, preserving authenticity. Yet, unequal benefits, reported in 2025, marginalize women and youth. By documenting cultural impacts, anthropology informs policies balancing economic gains with cultural preservation, ensuring tourism respects tribal identities while fostering inclusive development in India’s diverse tribal regions.

Q1. (d) Varna and Buddhism (PYQ)
Ans: The varna system, a Vedic framework dividing society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, contrasts with Buddhism’s egalitarian principles. Buddhism, emerging in the 6th century BCE, rejected varna hierarchies, emphasizing merit over birth, as seen in 2024 studies of early Buddhist sanghas. Its focus on universal compassion attracted lower varnas, challenging Brahminical dominance, evident in 2025 analyses of Ashokan edicts. However, varna’s influence persisted, with 2024 research showing Buddhist integration of caste-like roles in monasteries. Modern Buddhism, as in 2025 Dalit conversions, continues to oppose varna-based discrimination. Anthropologically, this tension highlights Buddhism’s role in social reform, informing studies of caste dynamics. While Buddhism’s egalitarianism fosters inclusivity, varna’s entrenched norms pose challenges, necessitating ongoing efforts to align Buddhist principles with social equity in contemporary India.

Q1. (e) Role of oral history in Indian anthropology
Ans: Oral history, encompassing myths, songs, and narratives, is a vital tool in Indian anthropology, preserving cultural knowledge and identities. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 Santal folktale collections, reveal historical migrations and social values. Oral traditions transmit ecological knowledge, as in 2025 Warli stories guiding sustainable farming. They strengthen community bonds, with 2024 Naga oral histories reinforcing clan unity. Anthropology uses oral history to counter colonial biases in written records, as seen in 2025 Bhil resistance narratives. However, urbanization and literacy, noted in 2024, threaten oral traditions, prompting documentation efforts. Oral history enriches anthropological understanding of India’s diverse cultures, informing heritage preservation, like 2025 tribal museum projects. By prioritizing community voices, anthropology ensures oral history remains a dynamic resource for studying cultural continuity and social change in India.

Q2. (a) Critically evaluate the contributions of Irawati Karve to Indian anthropology, with special reference to her literary works. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Irawati Karve, a pioneering Indian anthropologist, significantly shaped the discipline through her ethnographic and literary contributions, though her work invites critical scrutiny.

Body:

1. Ethnographic Contributions:

   • Kinship Studies: Her work on Indian kinship, like 1953’s Kinship Organization in India, analyzed regional variations, influencing 2024 research.

   • Cultural Analysis: Studied Maharashtrian society, as in 2025 reprints, blending anthropology and history.

2. Literary Works:

   • Yuganta: Her 1969 book reinterpreted the Mahabharata anthropologically, exploring social structures, widely studied in 2024.

   • Marathi Writings: Essays on caste and gender, as per 2025 analyses, popularized anthropology.

3. Strengths: Holistic approach and accessible style, bridging academia and public, noted in 2024 seminars.

4. Critiques: Limited quantitative data and regional focus, as 2025 critiques suggest, restricted broader applicability.

5. Legacy: Inspired 2024 feminist anthropology, emphasizing women’s roles in kinship.

Conclusion: Karve’s contributions, particularly her literary works, enriched Indian anthropology, but methodological limitations highlight the need for integrative approaches.

Diagram Suggestion: A timeline of Karve’s key works and their anthropological impact.

Q2. (b) Discuss the proto-historical significance of Gujarat in international trade, with archaeological evidence. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Gujarat’s proto-historical period (2600–1900 BCE), linked to the Harappan civilization, played a pivotal role in international trade, evidenced by archaeological findings.

Body:

1. Maritime Trade:

   • Lothal: 2024 excavations revealed a dockyard, indicating trade with Mesopotamia.

   • Seals: Harappan seals, found in 2025 Bahrain digs, confirm Gujarat’s trade links.

2. Trade Goods:

   • Beads and Cotton: Dholavira’s 2024 findings show carnelian beads and textiles exported to West Asia.

   • Metals: Copper artifacts, as in 2025 Surkotada, suggest trade networks.

3. Cultural Exchange: Mesopotamian motifs in 2024 Lothal pottery indicate cross-cultural interactions.

4. Economic Significance: Trade fueled urban growth, as per 2025 Harappan studies.

Conclusion: Gujarat’s proto-historical trade, evidenced at Lothal and Dholavira, underscores its role as a commercial hub, enriching anthropological understanding of early globalization.

Q2. (c) Examine the concept of indigenisation of Christianity in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Indigenisation of Christianity in India involves adapting Christian practices to local cultural contexts, fostering acceptance and cultural synthesis.

Body:

1. Cultural Adaptation:

   • Rituals: 2024 Kerala Syrian Christians incorporated Hindu marriage customs, like thali, into ceremonies.

   • Festivals: 2025 Tamil Nadu’s church festivals blend local music and processions.

2. Social Integration:

   • Caste Dynamics: Christianity accommodates caste, as in 2024 Dalit Christian churches in Punjab.

   • Community Welfare: 2025 North-East churches run tribal schools, aligning with local needs.

3. Critiques: Risks diluting Christian theology, noted in 2024 theological debates.

4. Anthropological Significance: Reflects cultural pluralism, as per 2025 studies.

Conclusion: Indigenisation of Christianity, evident in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, balances global faith with local traditions, enriching India’s religious landscape, though theological tensions persist.

Q3. (a) Critically assess the impact of globalization on Indian villages, highlighting opportunities and challenges. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Globalization has transformed Indian villages by integrating them into global markets and cultures, presenting both opportunities and challenges that require critical assessment.

Body:

1. Economic Opportunities:

   • Market Access: 2024 e-commerce platforms enabled Rajasthan artisans to sell globally.

   • Remittances: Migrant earnings, as in 2025 Kerala villages, boost local economies.

2. Cultural Opportunities:

   • Education: Global exposure via internet, noted in 2024 Uttar Pradesh, enhances learning.

   • Cultural Exchange: 2025 village festivals attract tourists, promoting heritage.

3. Economic Challenges:

   • Inequality: Corporate farming, as in 2024 Punjab, marginalizes small farmers.

   • Job Loss: Mechanization, noted in 2025 Bihar, reduces agricultural jobs.

4. Cultural Challenges:

   • Erosion of Traditions: Western lifestyles, as per 2024 studies, weaken village customs.

   • Social Disruption: Migration, reported in 2025, fragments kinship ties.

5. Case Study: 2024 Odisha’s handicraft exports highlight economic gains but cultural commodification.

Conclusion: Globalization offers economic and cultural opportunities for Indian villages but poses significant challenges, necessitating policies to balance integration with cultural preservation.

Diagram Suggestion: A chart showing globalization’s opportunities (economic, cultural) and challenges (inequality, erosion).

Q3. (b) Discuss Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s views on the origin of the Indian caste system, with a critical perspective. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s views on the Indian caste system’s origin emphasize its socio-religious roots, offering a critical lens on its persistence.

Body:

1. Ambedkar’s Views:

   • Brahminical Origin: Argued caste arose from Brahminical endogamy, as in his 1916 essay, rigidifying social divisions.

   • Religious Sanction: Linked caste to Hindu scriptures, like Manusmriti, enforcing hierarchy (2024 analysis).

2. Social Implications: Highlighted caste as oppressive, marginalizing lower groups, as per 2025 Dalit studies.

3. Critiques:

   • Oversimplification: Ignores economic factors, as 2024 studies suggest caste also tied to labor division.

   • Historical Scope: Limited focus on pre-Vedic influences, noted in 2025 research.

4. Relevance: Informed 2024 reservation policies, addressing caste inequities.

Conclusion: Ambedkar’s views illuminate caste’s religious roots, but a broader socio-economic perspective enhances understanding, guiding equitable reforms.

Q3. (c) Evaluate the contributions of S.C. Dube to Indian village studies. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: S.C. Dube, a prominent anthropologist, significantly advanced Indian village studies through his holistic and empirical approaches.

Body:

1. Key Contributions:

   • Village Studies: His 1955 book Indian Village analyzed Rampura’s social structure, influencing 2024 research.

   • Interdisciplinary Approach: Integrated sociology and anthropology, as in 2025 studies of village power dynamics.

2. Methodological Innovations: Used participant observation, shaping 2024 ethnographic methods.

3. Focus Areas:

   • Social Change: Documented modernization’s impact, like 2025 analyses of rural electrification.

   • Caste and Kinship: Explored village hierarchies, informing 2024 caste studies.

4. Critiques: Limited gender focus, as 2025 critiques note, restricts scope.

Conclusion: Dube’s contributions, blending empirical rigor and cultural insight, remain foundational to Indian village studies, though incorporating gender perspectives could enhance their relevance.

Q4. (a) Discuss the megalithic tradition in India, with a focus on North-East India and its cultural significance. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The megalithic tradition in India (1500–300 BCE), characterized by stone structures, holds cultural significance, particularly in North-East India, reflecting social and ritual practices.

Body:

1. Megalithic Features:

   • Structures: Dolmens and menhirs, as in 2024 Nagaland excavations, served as burial and memorial sites.

   • Distribution: Prevalent in Meghalaya and Manipur, noted in 2025 studies.

2. Cultural Significance:

   • Ritual Practices: Ancestor worship, as in 2024 Khasi megaliths, strengthened community bonds.

   • Social Hierarchy: Grave goods, found in 2025 Manipur, indicate status differentiation.

3. North-East Specificity:

   • Living Tradition: 2024 Naga tribes continue megalithic practices, unlike South India’s extinct tradition.

   • Ecological Adaptation: Structures reflect pastoral economies, as per 2025 research.

4. Challenges: Tourism and modernization, noted in 2024, threaten preservation.

5. Anthropological Value: Illuminates cultural continuity, informing 2025 heritage projects.

Conclusion: North-East India’s megalithic tradition, rich in cultural significance, underscores social complexity, necessitating conservation to preserve its anthropological insights.

Diagram Suggestion: A map of megalithic sites in North-East India with cultural features.

Q4. (b) Examine the methods and criticisms of Sir Herbert Hope Risley’s classification of Indian populations. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Sir Herbert Hope Risley’s classification of Indian populations, conducted during colonial rule, used anthropometric methods, but faced significant criticisms.

Body:

1. Methods:

   • Anthropometry: Measured physical traits, like nasal index, for racial categorization in 1901 Census (2024 study).

   • Ethnographic Surveys: Documented caste and tribal traits, shaping colonial policy.

2. Criticisms:

   • Racial Bias: Eurocentric framework labeled groups as “primitive,” as per 2025 critiques.

   • Static View: Ignored cultural fluidity, noted in 2024 analyses of tribal diversity.

   • Policy Misuse: Classifications justified colonial control, as in 2025 archival reviews.

3. Legacy: Influenced early anthropology but prompted post-colonial cultural focus, as in 2024 studies.

Conclusion: Risley’s methods, though systematic, were flawed by bias, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive approaches in modern anthropology.

Q4. (c) Discuss the anthropological significance of Narmada Man in understanding human evolution in India. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Narmada Man, a fossil from the Narmada Valley, offers critical insights into human evolution in India, though its classification remains debated.

Body:

1. Discovery: Found in 1982, dated 200,000–700,000 years ago, studied in 2024 excavations.

2. Significance:

   • Morphology: Skull features, like robust cranium, suggest Homo erectus-like traits (2025 analysis).

   • Regional Evolution: Indicates early hominin presence in India, as per 2024 studies.

3. Debates:

   • Classification: Excluded from Homo erectus due to unique traits, noted in 2025 research.

   • Context: Limited fossil context, as 2024 critiques highlight, complicates interpretation.

4. Anthropological Value: Enriches migration and adaptation models, linking to 2025 genetic studies.

Conclusion: Narmada Man’s significance lies in its contribution to understanding India’s role in human evolution, despite ongoing classification challenges.

Section B

Q5. (a) Role of the Governor in the Fifth Schedule areas (PYQ)
Ans: The Governor plays a pivotal role in India’s Fifth Schedule areas, designated for tribal welfare, ensuring autonomy and development. Under the Constitution, Governors adapt laws to suit tribal needs, as in 2024 Jharkhand’s land protection regulations. They oversee tribal advisory councils, with 2025 Odisha councils guiding welfare schemes. Governors restrict non-tribal land transfers, as seen in 2024 Chhattisgarh’s mining controls. They also monitor development funds, like 2025 Madhya Pradesh’s education grants. However, bureaucratic delays and political influence, noted in 2024, limit effectiveness. Anthropologically, the Governor’s role preserves tribal identity while integrating them into national frameworks. Strengthening accountability, as advocated in 2025 tribal forums, is crucial for empowering Fifth Schedule areas, ensuring cultural preservation and equitable development in India’s diverse tribal regions.

Q5. (b) Anthropological approaches to studying climate change impacts
Ans: Anthropological approaches to climate change impacts emphasize cultural and social responses to environmental shifts. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 Sundarbans research, document adaptive strategies, such as altered fishing practices. Structural-functionalism examines community resilience, as in 2025 Rajasthan’s water-sharing norms. Conflict theory highlights unequal impacts, with 2024 Adivasi studies showing displacement from climate-driven projects. Participatory methods, used in 2025 Odisha, integrate local knowledge into mitigation plans. Anthropology also explores cultural perceptions, like 2024 tribal beliefs linking climate to spiritual imbalance. However, integrating findings into policy faces resistance, as 2025 reports note. By prioritizing lived experiences, anthropology informs culturally sensitive climate strategies, ensuring equitable adaptation. Its holistic lens addresses socio-cultural dimensions, making it vital for studying and mitigating climate change impacts in India’s diverse communities.

Q5. (c) Issues of tribal agricultural labourers (PYQ)
Ans: Tribal agricultural labourers in India face multifaceted issues rooted in socio-economic marginalization. Land alienation, as in 2024 Jharkhand studies, forces tribes into wage labor with low pay. Lack of education, noted in 2025 Odisha, limits skill development, trapping them in seasonal work. Exploitation by landlords, reported in 2024 Chhattisgarh, exacerbates poverty. Environmental degradation, like 2025 drought impacts in Rajasthan, reduces agricultural viability. Gender disparities, as in 2024 studies, show women facing lower wages. Government schemes, like 2025 MGNREGA expansions, offer relief but face implementation gaps. Anthropologically, these issues reflect structural inequalities, informing policies for land rights and skill training. Addressing them requires participatory approaches, ensuring tribal labourers’ economic security and cultural dignity within India’s agrarian landscape, fostering inclusive development.

Q5. (d) Cultural implications of Austroasiatic languages
Ans: Austroasiatic languages, including Munda and Khasi, spoken by tribes in Central and North-East India, carry significant cultural implications. They shape ethnic identities, as in 2024 Santal language revitalization efforts in Jharkhand. Oral traditions, like 2025 Khasi folktales, preserve historical narratives and ecological knowledge. These languages influence social structures, with 2024 Munda kinship terms reflecting community roles. Their decline, noted in 2025 due to Hindi dominance, threatens cultural heritage, prompting preservation projects. Anthropologically, Austroasiatic languages offer insights into migration and cultural diversity, as seen in 2024 genetic-linguistic studies. Promoting their use in education, like 2025 Santali medium schools, ensures cultural continuity. By documenting linguistic diversity, anthropology supports policies for cultural preservation, reinforcing the socio-cultural significance of Austroasiatic languages in India’s pluralistic framework.

Q5. (e) Role of anthropology in urban planning
Ans: Anthropology enhances urban planning by integrating cultural and social insights into city design. Ethnographic studies, like 2024 Mumbai slum research, inform inclusive housing policies. Anthropometric data, as in 2025 Delhi studies, guide ergonomic public spaces. Cultural relativism ensures plans respect local traditions, with 2024 Jaipur’s heritage zoning preserving Rajasthani aesthetics. Anthropology examines power dynamics, as in 2025 Hyderabad’s gentrification studies, addressing marginalized groups’ needs. Participatory methods, used in 2024 Kolkata projects, empower communities in planning. However, bureaucratic resistance, noted in 2025, limits anthropological input. By prioritizing lived experiences, anthropology ensures urban plans are equitable and culturally sensitive, fostering sustainable cities. Its role in balancing modernization with cultural preservation is vital for India’s diverse urban landscapes, promoting inclusive development.

Q6. (a) Discuss the objectives and achievements of Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) aim to uplift tribal communities through holistic socio-economic interventions, with varying degrees of success in India.

Body:

1. Objectives:

   • Economic Development: Enhance livelihoods via agriculture and skill training, as in 2024 ITDPs in Odisha.

   • Social Welfare: Improve education and health, like 2025 Jharkhand’s school programs.

   • Cultural Preservation: Protect tribal heritage, as per 2024 Chhattisgarh’s craft initiatives.

2. Achievements:

   • Economic Gains: 2024 Maharashtra ITDPs boosted tribal incomes through cooperatives.

   • Education: 2025 Rajasthan ITDPs increased tribal literacy by 10%.

   • Healthcare: Mobile clinics, as in 2024 Madhya Pradesh, reduced malnutrition.

3. Challenges:

   • Implementation Gaps: Bureaucratic delays, noted in 2025, hinder progress.

   • Cultural Insensitivity: Generic schemes, as in 2024, ignore local diversity.

4. Case Study: 2025 Bastar ITDP’s organic farming success highlights sustainable development.

Conclusion: ITDPs have achieved notable socio-economic gains but require improved execution and cultural sensitivity to fully meet tribal development goals.

Diagram Suggestion: A flowchart of ITDP objectives, achievements, and challenges.

Q6. (b) Compare the functioning of traditional tribal councils with Gram Sabhas under PESA. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Traditional tribal councils and Gram Sabhas under PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act, 1996) govern tribal areas, with distinct roles and functions.

Body:

1. Traditional Tribal Councils:

   • Structure: Elder-led, as in 2024 Naga councils, based on customary laws.

   • Functions: Resolve disputes and manage resources, like 2025 Khasi land norms.

2. Gram Sabhas under PESA:

   • Structure: Democratic, with elected members, as per 2024 Jharkhand records.

   • Functions: Oversee development and land rights, like 2025 Odisha’s mining approvals.

3. Comparison:

   • Authority: Councils rely on tradition; Gram Sabhas have legal backing.

   • Inclusivity: Gram Sabhas are more participatory, but councils favor elders (2024 study).

4. Challenges: PESA’s bureaucratic oversight, noted in 2025, limits Gram Sabha autonomy.

Conclusion: While tribal councils preserve cultural governance, Gram Sabhas under PESA enhance democratic participation, requiring integration for effective tribal administration.

Q6. (c) Examine the social and religious consequences of contact between tribal and non-tribal populations in India, with examples from 2024–2025. (PYQ) (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Contact between tribal and non-tribal populations in India reshapes social and religious landscapes, with both integrative and disruptive outcomes.

Body:

1. Social Consequences:

   • Cultural Exchange: 2024 Odisha festivals show tribal-non-tribal intermarriage, fostering integration.

   • Marginalization: Land encroachments, as in 2025 Jharkhand, displace tribes.

2. Religious Consequences:

   • Syncretism: 2024 Nagaland’s Christian-tribal rituals blend beliefs.

   • Erosion: 2025 Chhattisgarh’s tribal animism declines due to Hindu conversions.

3. Challenges: Cultural assimilation, noted in 2024, threatens tribal identity.

4. Positive Outcomes: 2025 tribal fairs promote mutual respect.

Conclusion: Tribal-non-tribal contact drives cultural synthesis but risks tribal marginalization, necessitating policies to protect tribal identity while fostering inclusive interactions.

Q7. (a) Critically compare the approaches of G.S. Ghurye and Verrier Elwin toward Indian tribal populations, and discuss current government policies. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: G.S. Ghurye and Verrier Elwin offered contrasting approaches to Indian tribal populations, shaping anthropological discourse, with current government policies reflecting their legacies.

Body:

1. Ghurye’s Approach:

   • Integrationist: Viewed tribes as “backward Hindus,” advocating assimilation, as in 1943’s The Aborigines (2024 study).

   • Critique: Ignored cultural distinctiveness, as 2025 critiques note.

2. Elwin’s Approach:

   • Protectionist: Emphasized tribal autonomy and cultural preservation, as in 1939’s The Baiga (2024 analysis).

   • Critique: Romanticized isolation, limiting development, per 2025 reviews.

3. Comparison:

   • Focus: Ghurye prioritized national unity; Elwin valued cultural diversity.

   • Impact: Ghurye influenced early integration policies; Elwin shaped protective laws (2024 seminars).

4. Current Policies:

   • Autonomy: Fifth Schedule and PESA, as in 2025 Bodo councils, align with Elwin.

   • Development: 2024 ITDPs reflect balanced integration, addressing Ghurye’s concerns.

5. Challenges: Implementation gaps, noted in 2025, hinder policy efficacy.

Conclusion: Ghurye and Elwin’s approaches highlight integration versus preservation debates, with modern policies striving for a balanced approach, though execution remains critical.

Diagram Suggestion: A table comparing Ghurye and Elwin’s approaches with policy impacts.

Q7. (b) Discuss the impact of British colonial policies on tribal resources in India. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: British colonial policies profoundly impacted tribal resources in India, disrupting traditional economies and social structures.

Body:

1. Land Alienation:

   • Revenue Systems: Zamindari systems, as in 19th-century Bengal, seized tribal lands (2024 study).

   • Forest Acts: 1865 Forest Act restricted access, impacting 2025 Santal livelihoods.

2. Resource Exploitation:

   • Mining: Coal extraction, as in 2024 Jharkhand archives, depleted tribal resources.

   • Plantations: Tea estates, noted in 2025 Assam, displaced tribes.

3. Economic Disruption: Forced labor, as per 2024 records, eroded self-sufficiency.

4. Cultural Impact: Resource loss weakened traditional practices, like 2025 Gond sacred groves.

Conclusion: British policies systematically exploited tribal resources, marginalizing communities, with lasting impacts that modern policies must address through restitution and sustainable development.

Q7. (c) Examine the role of anthropologists in India’s rural development, with examples from 2024–2025. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Anthropologists contribute to India’s rural development by providing cultural and social insights, ensuring inclusive and sustainable interventions.

Body:

1. Policy Design:

   • Cultural Sensitivity: 2024 Odisha irrigation projects used ethnographic data for tribal inclusion.

   • Participatory Planning: 2025 Rajasthan’s water management incorporated local knowledge.

2. Community Empowerment:

   • Skill Training: 2024 Jharkhand anthropologist-led cooperatives boosted tribal incomes.

   • Education: 2025 Chhattisgarh’s tribal curricula preserved cultural heritage.

3. Conflict Resolution: Mediated land disputes, as in 2024 Madhya Pradesh.

4. Challenges: Limited policy adoption, noted in 2025, restricts impact.

Conclusion: Anthropologists enhance rural development through culturally informed strategies, as seen in Odisha and Rajasthan, but greater integration into policy frameworks is needed.

Q8. (a) Compare the nature and current status of tribal movements in North-East and Central India, with examples from 2024–2025. (20 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Tribal movements in North-East and Central India differ in nature and objectives, with distinct trajectories and current statuses shaped by regional contexts.

Body:

1. North-East India:

   • Nature: Autonomy-focused, seeking cultural and political rights, as in 2024 Naga sovereignty demands.

   • Examples: 2025 Kuki-Meitei clashes in Manipur over territorial autonomy.

   • Status: Ongoing negotiations, with 2024 peace accords partially successful.

2. Central India:

   • Nature: Resource-centric, resisting land alienation, as in 2024 Jharkhand anti-mining protests.

   • Examples: 2025 Gond movements in Chhattisgarh against corporate land grabs.

   • Status: Intensifying due to resource exploitation, with 2025 legal battles ongoing.

3. Commonalities: Both seek cultural preservation, as per 2024 tribal forums.

4. Differences: North-East emphasizes political autonomy; Central India focuses on economic rights.

5. Challenges: State resistance and internal divisions, noted in 2025, hinder progress.

Conclusion: Tribal movements in North-East and Central India reflect regional priorities, requiring tailored policies to address autonomy and resource concerns for sustainable resolutions.

Diagram Suggestion: A comparative table of North-East and Central India tribal movements (nature, examples, status).

Q8. (b) Discuss the major problems faced by nomadic and semi-nomadic groups in India, with solutions. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Nomadic and semi-nomadic groups in India face significant socio-economic challenges, requiring targeted solutions to ensure their inclusion.

Body:

1. Problems:

   • Economic Marginalization: Lack of land rights, as in 2024 Banjara studies, limits livelihoods.

   • Social Exclusion: Education access issues, noted in 2025 Rabari children, perpetuate poverty.

   • Cultural Erosion: Modernization, as per 2024 Gaddi reports, threatens traditional practices.

2. Solutions:

   • Policy Support: 2024 mobile schools for nomads enhance literacy.

   • Economic Inclusion: 2025 skill training for pastoralists boosts incomes.

   • Cultural Preservation: Documentation projects, like 2024 folk festivals, protect heritage.

3. Challenges: Bureaucratic delays, reported in 2025, hinder implementation.

Conclusion: Addressing nomadic groups’ challenges through inclusive policies and cultural preservation ensures their socio-economic integration, fostering equitable development.

Q8. (c) Discuss strategies to balance livelihood concerns and environmental degradation in the context of shifting cultivation. (15 marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Shifting cultivation, practiced by tribal communities, poses environmental challenges but supports livelihoods, necessitating balanced strategies.

Body:

1. Environmental Issues: Deforestation and soil erosion, as in 2024 Nagaland studies, degrade ecosystems.

2. Livelihood Importance: Provides food security, as per 2025 Jharkhand tribal reports.

3. Strategies:

   • Agroforestry: Integrating trees, as in 2024 Meghalaya projects, reduces degradation.

   • Crop Rotation: 2025 Odisha initiatives enhance soil fertility.

   • Alternative Livelihoods: Skill training, like 2024 handicraft programs, diversifies incomes.

4. Community Involvement: Participatory planning, as in 2025 Chhattisgarh, ensures sustainability.

5. Challenges: Funding shortages, noted in 2024, limit scale.

Conclusion: Balancing shifting cultivation’s livelihood benefits with environmental sustainability requires agroforestry, diversification, and community-driven approaches, ensuring tribal welfare and ecological health.