Mock Test Paper - 2 (History Optional Paper- I): Answers | History Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Answers

Section-A

Q1. Short notes on identified places (50 Marks)
Ans:
(i) Chalcolithic settlement site: Ahar, Rajasthan (3000–1500 BCE), is known for black-and-red ware, copper tools, and agrarian economy, reflecting early rural settlements with proto-urban characteristics.
(ii) Jain rock-cut cave site: Udayagiri, Odisha (1st century BCE), features Jain caves with carvings, used as monastic retreats, showcasing early Jain architectural and religious influence.
(iii) Kushana coin hoard site: Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, yielded Kushana coins of gold and copper, depicting rulers like Kanishka, indicating trade prosperity and economic strength.
(iv) Early historic trade port: Arikamedu, Tamil Nadu (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE), was an Indo-Roman port with amphorae finds, highlighting maritime trade significance.
(v) Megalithic burial complex: Burzahom, Kashmir (2000–1000 BCE), features stone circles and pit burials with tools, reflecting Megalithic burial customs and societal organization.

Q2. (a) Examine the statement that the Harappan civilization was a pinnacle of urban sophistication due to its advanced town planning and engineering. (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Harappan civilization (2600–1900 BCE), also known as the Indus-Saraswati civilization, is celebrated for its urban sophistication, particularly in town planning and engineering, as evidenced by cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Dholavira.

Body:

1. Grid-Based Town Planning: Harappan cities followed a grid layout with standardized burnt-brick structures. Mohenjo-Daro’s streets, aligned north-south and east-west, ensured efficient urban organization and mobility.

2. Advanced Drainage Systems: Covered drains, constructed with burnt bricks, ran alongside streets, with manholes for maintenance. Houses in Lothal and Dholavira had private bathrooms connected to main drains.

3. Public Architecture: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, with waterproofed walls, and Lothal’s dockyard demonstrate engineering prowess for communal and economic purposes.

4. Standardization: Uniform brick ratios (4:2:1) and weights, as found in Harappa, reflect centralized planning and administrative control, unparalleled in contemporary civilizations.

Conclusion: The Harappan civilization’s advanced town planning and engineering, supported by archaeological evidence, mark it as a pinnacle of urban sophistication, showcasing remarkable organizational and technical achievements that influenced later urban developments.

Q2. (b) How far does Sangam literature serve as a source for understanding the social and cultural traditions of ancient South India? (15 Marks) (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: Sangam literature (300 BCE–300 CE), comprising Tamil anthologies like Ettuthokai and Pattuppattu, provides a rich source for understanding the social and cultural traditions of ancient South India.

Body:

1. Social Hierarchy: Texts like Purananuru depict a stratified society with chieftains, poets, and commoners, highlighting kinship, caste divisions, and women’s roles in domestic and public spheres.

2. Cultural Norms: Tolkappiyam outlines Tamil grammar and cultural practices, including marriage rituals and heroic ideals like cattle raids, reflecting societal values.

3. Economic Insights: Akananuru references trade with Romans and ports like Puhar, indicating a vibrant agrarian and mercantile economy.

4. Limitations: The poetic and idealized nature of Sangam texts may exaggerate heroic deeds and underrepresent marginalized groups, necessitating corroboration with archaeology.

Conclusion: Sangam literature offers a vivid window into ancient South India’s social structure and cultural ethos, though its poetic bias requires careful interpretation alongside material evidence.

Q2. (c) Assess the role of archaeological sources in reconstructing the political history of the Mauryan Empire. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE), under rulers like Chandragupta and Ashoka, is a cornerstone of Indian history. Archaeological sources play a crucial role in reconstructing its political history.

Body:

1. Ashokan Edicts: Rock and pillar edicts, such as those at Sarnath and Lauriya Nandangarh, detail Ashoka’s dhamma policy, administrative reforms, and territorial extent, revealing centralized governance.

2. Urban Remains: Excavations at Pataliputra uncover wooden palaces and drainage systems, indicating the empire’s economic and administrative strength.

3. Stupas and Pillars: Sanchi Stupa and Ashokan pillars with polished sandstone reflect state patronage of Buddhism and imperial propaganda.

4. Limitations: Perishable materials and incomplete excavations limit comprehensive insights, requiring integration with texts like Arthashastra.

Conclusion: Archaeological sources provide tangible evidence of Mauryan political structures and ideology, significantly aiding historical reconstruction, though they must be supplemented with literary sources for a complete picture.

Q3. (a) Evaluate the principles, spread, and impact of the Bhakti Movement in medieval India. (20 Marks) (PYQ)
Ans:
Introduction: The Bhakti Movement, emerging around the 7th century CE, was a devotional reform movement emphasizing personal devotion to God, challenging ritualism and caste barriers, and profoundly shaping medieval Indian society.

Body:

1. Principles: Bhakti saints like Kabir and Mirabai advocated direct devotion, equality, and rejection of caste and ritualistic orthodoxy, promoting universal access to spirituality.

2. Spread: Originating in South India with Alvars and Nayanars, it spread north through Ramananda, Chaitanya, and Guru Nanak, using vernacular languages to reach diverse communities.

3. Social Impact: The movement fostered inclusivity, empowering lower castes and women, and promoting communal harmony by blending Hindu and Islamic mysticism, as seen in Guru Nanak’s teachings.

4. Cultural Impact: Bhakti poetry, like Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas, enriched regional literature and democratized religious knowledge.

5. Limitations: Orthodox reabsorption sometimes diluted its radicalism, limiting systemic social change.

Conclusion: The Bhakti Movement’s principles of equality and devotion, coupled with its widespread reach, reshaped medieval India’s social and cultural landscape, leaving a lasting legacy of inclusivity and spiritual unity.

Q3. (b) Discuss the contributions of the Gupta period to Indian art and architecture. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Gupta period (4th–6th century CE), often called the “Golden Age,” made significant contributions to Indian art and architecture, setting benchmarks for classical Indian aesthetics.

Body:

1. Temple Architecture: Early structural temples, like the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, introduced the Nagara style with shikhara, while Udayagiri caves reflect early rock-cut art.

2. Sculpture: Gupta sculptures, such as the Sarnath Buddha, feature serene expressions, flowing drapery, and refined iconography, influencing Buddhist art across Asia.

3. Painting: Ajanta cave frescoes, depicting Jataka tales, showcase vibrant colors and narrative mastery, representing a peak in Indian painting.

4. Metallurgy: The rust-resistant Delhi Iron Pillar demonstrates advanced metallurgical skills, symbolizing technical prowess.

Conclusion: The Gupta period’s innovative contributions to temple architecture, sculpture, painting, and metallurgy laid the foundation for classical Indian art, influencing subsequent artistic traditions across South Asia.

Q3. (c) Analyze the role of maritime trade in the economic prosperity of the Indus-Saraswati civilization. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Indus-Saraswati civilization (2600–1900 BCE) thrived economically due to its extensive maritime trade networks, which supported its urban centers and craft industries.

Body:

1. Maritime Networks: Lothal’s dockyard facilitated trade with Mesopotamia, evidenced by Harappan seals found in Sumerian sites, exporting beads, textiles, and timber.

2. Craft Specialization: Sites like Chanhudaro (bead-making) and Balakot (shell-work) produced goods for export, generating economic surplus and supporting urban growth.

3. Standardized Systems: Uniform weights and measures, found in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, streamlined trade, enhancing economic efficiency.

4. Challenges: Limited textual records necessitate reliance on archaeological finds, making it difficult to quantify trade volumes.

Conclusion: Maritime trade was a cornerstone of the Indus-Saraswati civilization’s economic prosperity, fostering urban development and craft specialization, with archaeological evidence underscoring its commercial vitality.

Q4. (a) Assess the significance of Ashokan inscriptions in understanding Mauryan governance and ideology. (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Ashokan inscriptions, comprising rock and pillar edicts (3rd century BCE), are primary sources for understanding the Mauryan Empire’s governance and ideological framework under Ashoka.

Body:

1. Dhamma Policy: Edicts like the Major Rock Edict at Girnar articulate Ashoka’s dhamma, emphasizing non-violence, tolerance, and welfare, reflecting a unique ethical governance model.

2. Administrative Insights: The edicts detail administrative measures, such as appointing dhamma-mahamatras for welfare and justice, indicating a centralized yet benevolent bureaucracy.

3. Territorial Extent: Inscriptions at sites like Sarnath and Lauriya Nandangarh reveal the empire’s vast reach, from Afghanistan to South India, showcasing political unification.

4. Public Communication: Written in Prakrit and Brahmi, the edicts addressed diverse populations, demonstrating Ashoka’s intent to foster unity and moral governance.

5. Limitations: The inscriptions focus on Ashoka’s reign, offering limited insights into earlier Mauryan rulers like Chandragupta.

Conclusion: Ashokan inscriptions are invaluable for understanding Mauryan governance and ideology, revealing a sophisticated administrative system and ethical statecraft that shaped India’s political legacy, though they require supplementation for a complete historical view.

Q4. (b) Examine the socio-economic impact of the Chola temple architecture on South Indian society. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Chola dynasty (9th–13th century CE) revolutionized South Indian temple architecture, with structures like the Brihadeeswara Temple, impacting society economically and socially.

Body:

1. Economic Stimulus: Temples acted as economic hubs, employing artisans, priests, and dancers, while land grants (devadana) supported agriculture, boosting rural economies.

2. Social Integration: Temples were centers of learning and festivals, uniting diverse castes and fostering social cohesion, as seen in Thanjavur’s temple activities.

3. Cultural Patronage: Chola temples, with intricate sculptures, promoted art and dance forms like Bharatanatyam, elevating cultural identity.

4. Challenges: Temple wealth concentration sometimes led to social inequalities, with elites dominating resources.

Conclusion: Chola temple architecture significantly influenced South Indian society by driving economic growth, social unity, and cultural richness, though it occasionally reinforced hierarchical structures, leaving a lasting legacy in regional development.

Q4. (c) Discuss the role of Vedic literature in resolving the Aryan question in Indian history. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Aryan question, concerning the origins and migration of Indo-Aryans, relies heavily on Vedic literature, including the Rigveda, for historical insights.

Body:

1. Linguistic Evidence: The Rigveda’s Sanskrit hymns share linguistic roots with Avestan, suggesting Indo-Aryan migration from Central Asia, supporting the steppe hypothesis.

2. Cultural Practices: Descriptions of pastoralism, horse sacrifices, and chariot use in the Rigveda align with steppe cultures, indicating Aryan nomadic origins.

3. Geographical References: The Rigveda mentions rivers like the Sapta Sindhu, placing Aryans in northwest India, aiding in tracing their settlement patterns.

4. Limitations: Lack of precise dating and archaeological corroboration creates ambiguity, necessitating integration with genetic and material evidence.

Conclusion: Vedic literature provides critical linguistic and cultural clues to resolve the Aryan question, supporting migration theories, but its interpretive challenges highlight the need for multidisciplinary approaches to achieve clarity.

Section-A

Q5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 × 5 = 50 Marks)

Q5. (a) Discuss the key features of Indian feudalism during the medieval period.
Ans: Indian feudalism, prominent from the 7th to 13th centuries, was characterized by a decentralized agrarian system. Land grants (jagirs) to nobles and temples created a hierarchical structure, with kings at the apex, followed by vassals and peasants. The samanta system involved subordinate chiefs paying tribute, as seen in Rajput polities. Peasants, often tied to land, provided labor and revenue, while intermediaries like zamindars managed estates. Military obligations tied vassals to rulers, ensuring loyalty. Temples, as economic hubs, reinforced feudal ties through land endowments. However, unlike European feudalism, Indian feudalism lacked rigid serfdom, allowing some peasant mobility. This system, evident in Gupta and post-Gupta records, fostered regional autonomy but led to fragmentation, weakening central authority and paving the way for invasions like those of the Turks.

Q5. (b) Examine the limitations of Alberuni’s assessment of Indian society. (PYQ)
Ans: Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind (11th century CE) offers a detailed account of Indian society, but it has limitations. His reliance on Sanskrit texts and Brahmin informants skewed his perspective toward elite traditions, marginalizing non-Brahminical practices like Buddhism. Linguistic barriers, despite his Sanskrit knowledge, led to misinterpretations of cultural nuances. Alberuni’s Islamic lens sometimes fostered bias, viewing Indian religious practices as superstitious, particularly idol worship. His focus on northern India neglected southern cultural diversity, limiting geographical scope. Additionally, his observations, based on a short stay, lacked depth in understanding social dynamics like caste complexities. While his work provides valuable insights into science, religion, and philosophy, these limitations necessitate cross-referencing with archaeological and literary sources to achieve a balanced understanding of medieval Indian society.

Q5. (c) Analyze the role of Sufi literature as a source of medieval Indian history.
Ans: Sufi literature, including tazkiras, poetry, and mystical treatises, is a crucial source for medieval Indian history. Works like Fawaid-ul-Fuad by Nizamuddin Auliya document socio-religious interactions, highlighting cultural syncretism. Sufi poetry, such as Amir Khusrau’s verses, reflects communal harmony and social attitudes, blending Hindu and Islamic mysticism. Hagiographies like Siyar-ul-Auliya detail saints’ lives, revealing their political influence, as seen in Chishti patronage by Delhi sultans. Sufi texts also note economic activities, with khanqahs as trade hubs. However, their hagiographic nature may exaggerate miracles, requiring corroboration with inscriptions and chronicles. Despite this, Sufi literature enriches historical understanding of medieval India’s spiritual, social, and political dynamics, underscoring Sufism’s role in fostering inclusivity and cultural synthesis.

Q5. (d) Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
Ans: The Delhi Sultanate’s decline by the 14th–15th centuries resulted from multiple factors. Weak successors after Iltutmish, like Razia’s short reign, destabilized central authority. The nobility’s factionalism, evident in Balban’s struggles, eroded governance. Economic strain from Muhammad Tughlaq’s failed policies, like token currency, caused fiscal crises and rebellions. Territorial overexpansion weakened military resources, as seen in Alauddin Khalji’s Deccan campaigns. The lack of a clear succession policy led to power struggles, exemplified by the Tughlaq dynasty’s collapse. External invasions, like Timur’s 1398 sack of Delhi, exposed vulnerabilities. Regional powers, including Vijayanagara and Bahmani, challenged Sultanate authority, fragmenting its territories. Administrative inefficiencies and reliance on oppressive taxation alienated subjects, hastening the Sultanate’s collapse and paving the way for Mughal dominance.

Q5. (e) Evaluate the agrarian reforms of Alauddin Khalji and their objectives.
Ans: Alauddin Khalji’s agrarian reforms (1296–1316 CE) aimed to curb intermediaries’ power and ensure revenue for military campaigns. He introduced land measurement (zabt) to assess crops accurately, fixing revenue based on yield, reducing nobles’ exploitation. The state dealt directly with peasants, bypassing zamindars, to centralize control. He imposed heavy taxes, up to 50% of produce, to fund conquests, as seen in his Deccan campaigns. Price controls in markets, supported by granaries, stabilized food supply for the army. However, harsh enforcement alienated peasants, and intermediaries sometimes evaded reforms. While these measures strengthened state finances and military power, they caused rural discontent. Alauddin’s reforms, though effective in achieving fiscal control and weakening feudal elites, were short-lived, as successors failed to sustain them, highlighting their dependence on strong leadership.

Q6. (a) Discuss the role of Nur Jahan in shaping Mughal court politics during Jahangir’s reign. (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Nur Jahan (1577–1645 CE), Jahangir’s influential wife, played a pivotal role in Mughal court politics during his reign (1605–1627 CE), leveraging her intelligence and administrative acumen.

Body:

1. Political Influence: Nur Jahan dominated court decisions, issuing farmans and managing appointments. Her junta, including her father Itimad-ud-Daulah, controlled key posts, sidelining rival nobles.

2. Diplomacy and Military: She negotiated with rebels like Mahabat Khan and oversaw campaigns, such as against Mewar, strengthening Mughal authority through strategic alliances.

3. Patronage of Arts: Nur Jahan patronized architecture, like Itimad-ud-Daulah’s tomb, and trade, promoting Persian textiles, enhancing Mughal cultural prestige.

4. Succession Politics: She promoted her son-in-law Shahryar over Shah Jahan, causing factionalism, which weakened her influence post-Jahangir’s death.

5. Limitations: Her dominance alienated nobles, contributing to court intrigues, limiting her long-term impact.

Conclusion: Nur Jahan’s political astuteness and administrative control significantly shaped Mughal court politics, enhancing governance and cultural vibrancy, though her factionalism sowed seeds of future instability, underscoring her complex legacy.

Q6. (b) Analyze the reasons behind Balban’s preference for consolidation over expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–1287 CE), a Delhi Sultan, prioritized consolidation over expansion to strengthen the Sultanate amid internal and external threats.

Body:

1. Internal Instability: Frequent noble rebellions, like those of Turkish amirs, prompted Balban to centralize power through a strong monarchy, using sijda and paibos to enforce loyalty.

2. Mongol Threats: Repeated Mongol invasions, such as in 1279 CE, necessitated fortifying the northwest frontier, diverting resources from expansion to defense.

3. Administrative Reforms: Balban strengthened the spy system and military, crushing revolts like the Mewati uprising, to ensure internal stability over territorial gains.

4. Economic Constraints: The Sultanate’s treasury, strained by prior campaigns, required consolidation to stabilize revenue, focusing on efficient tax collection.

Conclusion: Balban’s preference for consolidation was driven by the need to counter internal dissent, Mongol threats, and economic challenges, ensuring the Sultanate’s stability and survival during a turbulent period.

Q6. (c) Examine the European influences in Mughal miniature paintings. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Mughal miniature paintings, flourishing from the 16th to 18th centuries, incorporated European influences, particularly under Jahangir and Shah Jahan, enriching their aesthetic and technical quality.

Body:

1. Perspective and Depth: European techniques like linear perspective and chiaroscuro, introduced via Jesuit missionaries, added depth, as seen in Padshahnama illustrations depicting court scenes.

2. Realism in Portraiture: Jahangir’s portraits, like those by Mansur, adopted European-style realistic facial features and shading, diverging from Persian flatness.

3. Thematic Influences: European motifs, such as cherubs and landscapes, appeared in paintings, reflecting Renaissance art’s impact, evident in Akbarnama borders.

4. Limitations: European influences were selectively adapted, retaining Persian and Indian elements, ensuring a syncretic style rather than wholesale adoption.

Conclusion: European influences enhanced the realism and technical sophistication of Mughal miniature paintings, contributing to their global acclaim, while maintaining a distinct Indo-Persian identity, showcasing Mughal cultural synthesis.

Q7. (a) Evaluate the threat posed by the Marathas to the integrity of the Mughal Empire. (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Marathas, under leaders like Shivaji and Peshwas, emerged as a significant threat to the Mughal Empire’s integrity in the 17th–18th centuries, challenging its political and military dominance.

Body:

1. Military Prowess: Shivaji’s guerrilla tactics (ganimi kava), as seen in the 1659 Battle of Pratapgad, disrupted Mughal control in the Deccan, weakening their authority.

2. Territorial Expansion: By the early 18th century, Peshwas like Baji Rao I expanded Maratha influence into Malwa and Gujarat, eroding Mughal territories and revenue.

3. Administrative Disruption: Maratha raids, such as the 1737 attack on Delhi, destabilized Mughal governance, exposing imperial vulnerabilities and encouraging regional revolts.

4. Alliances and Diplomacy: Marathas allied with Rajputs and Jats, further fragmenting Mughal alliances, as seen in their support for anti-Mughal factions.

5. Limitations: Internal divisions and the 1761 Panipat defeat temporarily curtailed Maratha power, delaying Mughal collapse.

Conclusion: The Marathas posed a formidable threat to the Mughal Empire through military, territorial, and diplomatic strategies, accelerating its disintegration, though their own disunity limited complete dominance, shaping India’s political transition.

Q7. (b) Discuss the contributions of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan to Mysore’s state-building. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Haidar Ali (1761–1782 CE) and Tipu Sultan (1782–1799 CE) transformed Mysore into a powerful state through military, administrative, and economic innovations, challenging British expansion.

Body:

1. Military Reforms: Haidar modernized the army with French-trained infantry, while Tipu introduced rockets, effectively resisting British forces in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.

2. Administrative Centralization: Haidar streamlined revenue collection, reducing intermediaries, and Tipu implemented land surveys to enhance state control, strengthening governance.

3. Economic Innovations: Tipu promoted sericulture and trade with Persia, establishing Mysore as an economic hub, while Haidar’s focus on agriculture boosted revenue.

4. Challenges: Tipu’s rigid policies and religious intolerance alienated some subjects, weakening internal cohesion and aiding British victories.

Conclusion: Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan’s contributions to Mysore’s state-building, through military prowess, administrative reforms, and economic growth, elevated its regional power, though external pressures and internal challenges led to its eventual fall.

Q7. (c) Analyze the rise of the Sikh power under Ranjit Singh. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Ranjit Singh (1780–1839 CE) transformed the Sikh misls into a powerful empire in Punjab, leveraging military and diplomatic strategies to establish regional dominance.

Body:

1. Military Consolidation: Ranjit unified misls, creating a disciplined army with European-trained artillery, capturing Lahore (1799) and expanding into Multan and Kashmir.

2. Administrative Reforms: He introduced a centralized administration with revenue systems and appointed loyal governors, ensuring stability across diverse territories.

3. Diplomacy: The 1809 Treaty of Amritsar with the British secured his eastern frontier, allowing focus on northwestern conquests like Peshawar.

4. Cultural Patronage: Ranjit’s secular policies and patronage of Sikh shrines, like the Golden Temple, fostered unity among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.

Conclusion: Ranjit Singh’s rise of Sikh power was driven by military consolidation, administrative efficiency, and strategic diplomacy, creating a resilient empire that stood as a bulwark against British expansion until his death.

Q8. (a) Examine the syncretic nature of Mughal architecture. (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Mughal architecture (16th–18th centuries CE), under rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan, is renowned for its syncretic character, blending Persian, Indian, and regional elements into a distinctive style.

Body:

1. Persian Influences: Central Asian domes and iwans, as seen in Humayun’s Tomb, reflect Timurid architectural traditions, emphasizing symmetry and geometric patterns.

2. Indian Elements: Use of red sandstone, jharokhas, and chhatris, evident in Fatehpur Sikri, incorporated Rajput and Jain styles, adapting to local aesthetics.

3. Regional Integration: Structures like the Jama Masjid in Delhi used Deccani and Gujarati motifs, showcasing regional craftsmanship and cultural fusion.

4. Technological Synthesis: Mughal innovations, like the pietra dura in the Taj Mahal, combined European inlay techniques with Indian artistry, enhancing aesthetic grandeur.

5. Symbolism: Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri blended Islamic and Hindu motifs, reflecting his policy of sulh-i-kul (universal tolerance).

Conclusion: Mughal architecture’s syncretic nature, harmonizing Persian, Indian, and regional styles, symbolized cultural integration and imperial grandeur, leaving a lasting legacy in India’s architectural heritage, evident in monuments like the Taj Mahal.

Q8. (b) Discuss the economic dynamism of 18th-century India despite political fragmentation. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: Despite political fragmentation in 18th-century India, following Mughal decline, the economy remained dynamic, driven by trade, agriculture, and regional commerce.

Body:

1. Internal Trade: Cities like Surat and Lucknow sustained vibrant markets, with banjaras facilitating trade in textiles, spices, and grains across regions.

2. Maritime Commerce: Ports like Calicut and Masulipatnam exported cotton and pepper to Europe and Southeast Asia, with European companies boosting trade volumes.

3. Banking Systems: Indigenous bankers (sarrafs) and hundi credit systems supported long-distance trade, maintaining economic resilience despite political instability.

4. Challenges: Political disruptions and European monopolies reduced Indian merchants’ autonomy, impacting economic surplus.

Conclusion: The 18th-century Indian economy exhibited remarkable dynamism through robust trade and banking networks, sustaining prosperity amid political turmoil, though European interventions gradually shifted economic control toward colonial dominance.

Q8. (c) Analyze the nature of the Mughal state under Akbar. (15 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Mughal state under Akbar (1556–1605 CE) was a centralized, inclusive empire, characterized by administrative innovation, religious tolerance, and territorial expansion.

Body:

1. Centralized Administration: Akbar’s mansabdari system integrated nobles into a ranked hierarchy, ensuring loyalty and efficient governance, as seen in revenue reforms by Todar Mal.

2. Religious Policy: His sulh-i-kul (universal tolerance) promoted harmony, abolishing jizya and patronizing Hindu and Jain scholars, fostering inclusivity.

3. Territorial Expansion: Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal expanded the empire, supported by a strong military and diplomatic alliances with Rajputs.

4. Cultural Synthesis: Akbar’s patronage of Persian translations of Sanskrit texts and Fatehpur Sikri’s architecture reflected a syncretic state identity.

Conclusion: Akbar’s Mughal state was a dynamic, centralized polity that balanced military might, administrative efficiency, and cultural inclusivity, laying the foundation for the empire’s golden era and enduring legacy.