Bipan Chandra Summary: Socio- Religious Reforms and the National Awakening | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Rammohan Roy's Viewpoint

In 1828, Raja Rammohan Roy expressed his concern that the existing Hindu religion was not beneficial for their political interests. He believed that the caste divisions weakened their patriotism and that the many religious rituals and purification laws hindered them from taking on challenges. He argued that a change in their religion was necessary for their political and social well-being.

Background of Change in 19th Century India

• This statement was made during a period when Indians were experiencing an intellectual and cultural transformation in the 19th century. It was a response to the British conquest and the spread of colonial culture, prompting reflection on the strengths and weaknesses of Indian culture and institutions.
• The social foundation for these reforms was mainly the emerging middle class, along with traditional and western-educated intellectuals.
• The socio-cultural revival in 19th century India was influenced by colonial presence but not solely created by it.

Reform Movements Throughout India

The reform movement, initiated by Raja Rammohan Roy in Bengal with the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, spread across India, leading to various significant movements:

• Paramahansa Mandali and Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra.
• Arya Samaj in Punjab and North India.
• Kayasth Sabha in Uttar Pradesh and Sarin Sabba in Punjab.
• Satya Sodhak Samaj in Maharashtra and Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Sabha in Kerala, led by backward castes.
• Ahmadiya and Aligarh movements among Muslims, Singh Sabha among Sikhs, and Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha among Parsees.

Although these movements focused on religious reform, they were grounded in humanist ideas addressing real-world issues rather than seeking otherworldly salvation.

• Raja Rammohan Roy viewed the concept of another world for its practical benefits.
• Akshay Kumar Dutt and Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar were agnostic and uninterested in supernatural matters.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Vivekananda advocated for the practical use of religion.

Religion and Social Practices

Religious beliefs were deeply intertwined with social practices, making the reform of religion crucial for social change. The Hindu way of life was governed by sacred rules in every aspect, from eating to moving, and deviating from these was considered a sin. Similarly, the social lives of Muslims were heavily regulated by religious rules. During this period, religion was the dominant ideology, making it challenging to address social issues without considering religious aspects.

Issues of Nineteenth Century Indian Society

In the 19th century, Indian society was caught in a cycle of religious superstitions and social ignorance. Hinduism, as observed by Max Weber, had degenerated into a blend of magic, animism, and superstition, with practices like animal sacrifice overshadowing genuine worship. Priests exerted a significant and detrimental influence over people’s minds, and idolatry and polytheism were widespread.

Social Condition in Early 19th Century

Social Condition

The social condition during the early 19th century was disheartening, particularly concerning the position of women.

Condition of Women

• The birth of a girl was considered undesirable.
• Her marriage was seen as a burden.
• Widowhood was regarded as inauspicious.
• There were attempts to kill female infants at birth.
• Women who survived faced the violence of early marriage.
• Marriages were often a means to avoid social disgrace, leading to unpleasant experiences.
• An eighty-year-old Brahmin in Bengal had two hundred wives, the youngest being just eight years old.
• Many women had no real married life, as their husbands often participated in ceremonies for a fee and rarely saw them afterward.
• Upon their husbands' deaths, they were expected to commit Sati, which Rammohan described as ‘murder according to every shastra.’
• If they resisted this social pressure, they faced lifelong misery, neglect, and humiliation as widows.

Caste System

• Caste maintained a system of separation based on ritual status.
• The rules of caste hindered social mobility.
• Caste fostered divisions within society.
• It diminished individual initiative.
• Above all, the humiliation of untouchability undermined human dignity.

Reform Movements

• Reform movements aimed to create a social environment for modernization.
• They rejected practices marked by constraint, blind belief, status, authority, and fatalism.
• Reformers claimed that issues like Sati and the caste system did not exist in a golden past.
• Raja Rammohan Roy showed that Sati lacked religious support.
• Vidyasagar defended widow marriage only after finding scriptural backing.
• Dayanand based his anti-caste position on Vedic authority.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade stated that the past could only be revived by reforming old materials into new forms.
• The aim was not to revive the past or completely break from tradition but to reform it.

Intellectual Criteria

• Rationalism: Early reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Akshay Kumar Dutt emphasized rationalism.
• Rammohan Roy rejected supernatural explanations and affirmed causality as the principle linking the universe.
• He believed demonstrability was the only measure of truth.
• Akshay Kumar claimed all natural and social phenomena could be understood through mechanical processes.
• Religious Universalism: This standard guided movements like the Brahmo Samaj and the Aligarh Movement.
• In the Brahmo Samaj, rationalism led to denying the infallibility of the Vedas.
• The Aligarh Movement reconciled Islamic teachings with modern needs.
• Syed Ahmed Khan argued that religious beliefs should evolve with society to remain relevant.

Perspectives on Reform

The perspectives on reform during the period were diverse and not solely driven by religious factors. Some reformers took a rational and secular approach, advocating for social changes based on their impact on society rather than religious approval. For instance, Akshay Kumar's focus on widow marriage, opposition to polygamy and child marriage, and his use of medical opinions against child marriage reflect a secular and societal concern.

Views of Gopal Han Deshmukh

• Gopal Han Deshmukh, also known as Lokahitavadi, was a proponent of social reforms in the 19th century. He believed that social reforms did not necessarily require the backing of religion.
• Deshmukh argued that if religion did not support certain social reforms, then religion itself should be questioned and reformed because it was a human creation.
• He emphasized that the teachings and principles found in religious scriptures might not be applicable or relevant in contemporary society.

Universalist Perspective of Raja Rammohan Roy

• Raja Rammohan Roy, a prominent social reformer, had a universalist perspective on religion. He viewed different religions as various expressions of a common belief in theism, the belief in a single God.
• Roy aimed to establish the Brahmo Samaj as a universalist church, promoting the idea that all religions share fundamental truths.
• He defended the universal principles found in all faiths while critiquing specific practices, such as polytheism in Hinduism and trinitarianism in Christianity.

Syed Ahmed Khan's Ideas

• Syed Ahmed Khan, a contemporary of Rammohan Roy, shared similar views on the universality of religious faith. He believed that all prophets, regardless of their cultural or national background, represented the same fundamental faith.
• Khan also suggested that different nations have their own prophets who guide their people in understanding the True God.
• Keshub Chandra Sen, another reformer, emphasized that established religions contain elements of truth. He believed that recognizing the True God could foster a sense of brotherhood among all people, transcending caste distinctions.

Impact of Universalism on Society

• The universalist perspective had a significant impact on political and social attitudes during the period. It influenced the way reformers and thinkers approached issues of honesty, equality, and social justice, often transcending religious boundaries.
• For instance, Raja Rammohan Roy's positive view of Muslim lawyers and Vidyasagar's equal treatment of Muslims in humanitarian work reflected this universalist outlook.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, despite his Hindu perspective, saw dharma as a measure of superiority rather than religious affiliation, indicating a broader understanding of social dynamics.
• Terms like 'Muslim yoke' were used more as political statements focusing on tyranny rather than religious identity, reflecting a shift in how religious groups were perceived in the context of social and political issues.

Colonial Challenge and Cultural Struggle

• The 19th century was marked by a cultural and ideological struggle against outdated traditional practices. Reformers sought to challenge and eliminate practices like idolatry that they deemed inappropriate or backward.
• This period was characterized by a push towards modernization and rationality in religious beliefs, with reformers advocating for a more streamlined and less superstitious approach to spirituality.

Reforms in Religious Practices

• Simplification of Religious Rituals: Priestly control over religious knowledge and the practice of polytheism were challenged.
• Social Impact of Rituals: These rituals were important not only for religious purposes but also for their social implications.
• Breaking Fear-Based Conformity: They helped individuals escape from fear-driven conformity and blind obedience to priestly exploitation.
• Translation and Interpretation: Translating religious texts into local languages and allowing the laity to interpret scriptures marked the beginning of questioning misinterpretations of religious teachings.
• Personalization of Worship: Streamlining rituals made worship a more personal experience, eliminating the need for intermediaries.
• Encouragement of Individual Freedom: This shift encouraged individuals to embrace their freedom and autonomy in religious practices.

Critique of Caste System

• Acknowledgment of Social Inequalities: There was a widespread recognition that the caste system perpetuated social inequalities and needed urgent reform.
• Moral and Patriotic Opposition: The caste system was seen as morally wrong and contrary to patriotic sentiments, hindering the development of democratic ideals.
• Pioneering Social Justice: Raja Rammohan Roy was a pioneer in opposing social injustices, laying the groundwork for future reforms that gained momentum throughout the century.
• Criticism by Reformers: Reformers like Ranade, Dayanand, and Vivekananda strongly criticized the caste system.
• Dayanand's Utopian Vision: While many sought the abolition of the caste system, Dayanand proposed a utopian vision of the chaturvarna system, advocating for its maintenance based on virtue.
• Principles of Classification: Dayanand argued that individuals should be classified based on knowledge and character, suggesting that a knowledgeable person could be considered a Brahman, while an ignorant person might be seen as a shudra.
• Lower Caste Movements: The most intense opposition to the caste system came from lower caste movements.
• Critique by Jyotiba Phule and Narayana Guru: Jyotiba Phule and Narayana Guru were persistent critics of the caste system and its societal impacts.
• Gandhiji and Narayana Guru:. significant dialogue occurred between Gandhiji and Narayana Guru, where Gandhiji acknowledged the differences among individuals, and Narayana Guru emphasized the shared essence of all people.
• Vision of Unity: Narayana Guru advocated for the concept of "one religion, one caste, and one God for mankind," which was later interpreted by his disciple Sahadaran Ayyapan as "no religion, no caste, and no God for mankind."

Campaign for Women's Improvement

• Not Just Humanitarian: The campaign for improving the condition and status of women was not merely a humanitarian effort.
• Need for Domestic Reforms: Real reforms necessitated changes in domestic conditions, which are the social environments where individuals are initially socialized.
• Crucial Role of Women: Women played a vital role in this process. Without reformed women, there could be no reformed men or homes.
• Ignorance of Women Hindering Progress: It was recognized that no nation could achieve significant progress if its women remained in ignorance.

Tradition and Reform Movements

• Avoiding Westernization: If reform movements had entirely rejected tradition, Indian society might have undergone Westernization. However, reformers aimed for modernization rather than merely adopting Western cultural norms.
• Not Blindly Following Western Traditions: The reform agenda did not involve blindly following Western traditions.

Challenges in Initiating Reforms

• Initial Reforms: The reforms that seem modest and limited today were quite challenging to initiate and undertake.
• Mental Distress and Social Tension: These efforts caused unprecedented mental distress and significant social tension.
• Emotional Crises: Breaking away from tradition led to emotional crises for individuals caught between old and new worlds.
• Public Backlash: Examples like the first widow marriage in Bengal, where thousands of curious onlookers gathered, and in Maharashtra, where the police had to protect the first couple from public backlash, illustrate the resistance faced.
• Controversies: Rukmabhai’s refusal to accept an uneducated husband and the personal struggles of reformers like Ranade, Lokahitavadi, and Telang highlight the controversies and dilemmas faced.
• Emergence of New Society: Despite the struggles, a new society and new individuals emerged in India out of this conflict.
• Revitalization of Traditional Institutions: Faced with colonial culture and ideology, there was a push to revitalize traditional institutions.

The Potential of Traditional Culture During Colonial Rule

• The resistance against colonial rule initially emerged in the realm of culture.
• This was because the principles of the colonial state were not significantly more advanced than those of the pre-colonial state.
• Disruptions in culture were felt more acutely.
• Therefore, the defense of indigenous culture began almost immediately after the onset of colonial rule.

Embracing the Entire Cultural Existence

• This concern encompassed the entire cultural existence, including way of life and all meaningful practices such as language, religion, art, and philosophy.
• Two main features marked this concern:
  • The creation of an alternative cultural-ideological system.
  • The regeneration of traditional institutions.
• Efforts included:
  • The promotion of vernacular languages.
  • Establishing an alternative education system.
  • Reviving Indian art and literature.
  • Encouraging Indian dress and food.
  • Defending religion and revitalising the Indian system of medicine.
  • Exploring pre-colonial technology and reconstructing traditional knowledge.
• Early signs of this movement appeared in:
  • Debates by Raja Rammohan Roy with Christian missionaries.
  • The activities of the Tattvabodhini Sabha.
  • A memorial on education signed by 70,000 residents of Madras.
  • General resentment against the Lex Loci Act, which allowed Hindu converts to Christianity to inherit ancestral property.
• A more defined expression was seen in the ideas and actions of later movements, often termed conservative and revivalist.
• These movements were strongly native and aimed to defend indigenous culture against colonial dominance.

Importance of Cultural Revival

• The cultural revival was instrumental in shaping a national consciousness.
• However, some tendencies did not progress beyond historical limits, leading to a sectarian and obscurantist perspective.
• This was likely due to a disconnection between cultural and political struggles, resulting in cultural stagnation despite political advancements.
• The cultural-ideological struggle, represented by socio-religious movements, was a crucial aspect of developing national consciousness.
• It contributed to creating an initial intellectual and cultural break that opened up new future possibilities.
• It also formed part of the resistance against colonial cultural and ideological dominance.
• From this dual struggle emerged the modern cultural landscape, including new individuals, communities, and society.