Bipan Chandra Summary: The Rise of the left Wing | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Radicalization of the National Movement

A strong left-wing group that formed in India during the late 1920s and 1930s played a significant role in radicalizing the national movement. This period saw the goal of political independence gaining a sharper focus on social and economic issues.

The struggle for independence began to intertwine with the fight for social and economic freedom for the oppressed. Socialist ideas took root in India, with socialism becoming the guiding philosophy for many young Indians. Prominent leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose emerged as symbols of this movement.

During this time, two major left-wing parties were established: the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP).

Impact of the Russian Revolution

• On 7 November 1917, the Bolshevik Party, led by V.I. Lenin, overthrew the Czarist regime in Russia.
• This event stirred excitement in colonial nations as it renounced imperialist claims in Asia, demonstrating that if the common people could unite to overthrow a powerful empire, then Indians could also challenge British rule.
• Socialist ideas, particularly Marxism, gained traction in Asia following this revolution.
• Bipin Chandra Pal observed in 1919 that a new global power was emerging, advocating for people's rights against exploitation.
• Socialist principles spread rapidly, especially among young activists disillusioned with the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Emergence of Socialist Groups

• S.A. Dange in Bombay published a pamphlet titled Gandhi and Lenin and initiated the first socialist weekly, The Socialist.
• In Bengal, Muzaffar Ahmed launched Navayug and later established Langal with poet Nazrul Islam.
• Ghulam Hussain and others in Punjab founded Inquilab, while M. Singaravelu started the Labour-Kisan Gazette in Madras.
• From 1927 onward, student and youth associations advocating for radical solutions to political and economic issues began to emerge across the country.
• Nehru and Bose traveled extensively, promoting socialism and opposing imperialism, capitalism, and landlordism.
• The Revolutionary Terrorists, led by Chandrasekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh, also embraced socialist ideals during this period.

Growth of Trade Unions and Peasant Movements

• Throughout the 1920s, there was a significant expansion of trade unions and peasant movements in India.
• The 1930s saw an increased appeal of socialist ideas, largely due to the global economic depression.
• Rising unemployment during this period contributed to a decline in capitalism and a growing interest in Marxism.
• Within the Indian National Congress, the left-wing gained strength, with leaders like Nehru and Bose being elected as presidents in 1936, 1937, 1938, and 1939.
• The formation of the Congress Socialist Party reflected these leftist tendencies within the Congress.

Nehru's Role in the National Movement

• Jawaharlal Nehru played a pivotal role in promoting a socialist vision within the national movement for independence.
• He became a central figure in linking the concept of freedom with socioeconomic issues.
• Nehru’s leadership was evident when he was elected president of the Lahore Congress in 1929 at the age of forty.
• He continued to hold the presidency in 1936 and 1937, during which he extensively toured India, advocating for socialist principles and addressing the socio-economic challenges faced by the country.

Influencing Future Leaders

Through his writings and speeches, Nehru shaped the views of many young nationalists, encouraging them to adopt a socialist perspective. He emphasized that political freedom was only meaningful if it resulted in the economic liberation of the people, paving the way for a socialist society.

Initial Engagement with Economic Issues

• 1920-21: Nehru became interested in economic matters while involved with the peasant movement in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• 1922-23: During his imprisonment, he read extensively about the Russian Revolution and other historical revolutions.

International Exposure and Shift in Ideology

• 1927: Nehru attended the international Congress against Colonial Oppression in Brussels, where he interacted with communists and anti-colonial activists, broadening his ideological understanding.
• Soviet Union Visit: His visit to the Soviet Union in 1927 profoundly impacted him, leading to his admiration for the socialist society being established there.

Path to Radicalism

1928: Nehru worked with Subhas Chandra Bose to push for complete independence and a socialist overhaul of India’s economic structure.

• 1929: At the Lahore Congress, Nehru openly declared his socialist and republican beliefs, criticizing the concentration of power in the hands of industrialists and landlords.
• 1933-36: Nehru’s commitment to socialism deepened, as he articulated the need for social and economic equality and the end of exploitation.
• 1936: In his presidential address at the Lucknow Congress, Nehru argued that socialism was essential for addressing India’s issues, advocating for radical changes in the political and social framework.

Critique of Gandhiji

Nehru had a nuanced relationship with Gandhiji during this period:

• Criticism: He critiqued Gandhiji for overlooking class conflicts and promoting harmony between exploiters and the exploited, which he believed was unrealistic.
• Acknowledgment: Nehru recognized Gandhiji’s significant role in Indian society, defending him against left-wing critics by highlighting his ability to connect with the masses and effectively leverage the prevailing conditions.
• Autobiography: In his autobiography, Nehru dedicated a chapter to respectfully challenge some core aspects of Gandhian ideology, reflecting his belief in the importance of class analysis and struggle.

Political Awareness and Nehru's Perspective

Growing awareness among the public significantly heightened focus on social issues. Nehru's firm conviction in prioritising the interests of the masses, even at the cost of established authorities, profoundly shaped the national movement's shift towards a people-centric approach.

In 1939, Nehru offered guidance to fellow Leftists on engaging with Gandhiji and the Congress. As observed by Mohit Sen, Nehru perceived most Congress members as centrists and believed that Gandhiji not only represented this group but was also vital for any successful mass movement. He felt the Left should not oppose Gandhiji or the centrists but should aim to shift the centre towards the Left, particularly concerning Gandhiji.

Nehru's dedication to socialism was framed within the struggle against imperialism, acknowledging India’s status under foreign rule. He emphasised that the primary challenge for Indian socialists was to unite nationalism, embodied by the Congress, with social freedom, represented by socialism. Nehru believed that integrating these two aspects was crucial for the Indian socialist agenda.

Consequently, Nehru did not advocate for establishing a separate organisation from the Congress or breaking away from Gandhiji and the Congress's right wing. Instead, he aimed to influence and steer the Congress towards a socialist direction from within. He believed this could be best accomplished by working within its structure and empowering its workers and farmers to take on more prominent roles. Nehru insisted that the Left should remain connected to the broader national movement.

Establishment of the Communist Party

Numerous Indian revolutionaries and exiles, motivated by the revolutionary principles from the Soviet Union, relocated there. The most prominent among them was M.N. Roy, who, alongside Lenin, contributed to shaping the Communist International’s perspective on colonies. In October 1920, Roy and six others gathered in Tashkent to form the Communist Party of India. Simultaneously, various leftist and communist factions began to emerge in India post-1920.

• Many of these factions unified in December 1925 in Kanpur to establish the all-India entity known as the Communist Party of India (CPI).
• S.V. Ghate surfaced as the party's general secretary.
• The CPI urged its members to join the Congress, foster a robust left-wing within its ranks, collaborate with other radical nationalists, and advocate for a more progressive, people-centric Congress.

Initially, the early Communists concentrated on forming political parties for peasants and workers. The first such group was the Labour-Swaraj Party of the Indian National Congress, founded by Muzaffar Ahmed, Qazi Nazrul Islam, Hemanta Kumar Sarkar, and others in Bengal in November 1925. A Congress Labour Party was established in Bombay in late 1926, and a Kirti-Kisan Party was formed in Punjab. Since 1923, a Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan had been operational in Madras. By 1928, these regional organisations were rebranded as the Workers’ and Peasants’ Party (WPP) and amalgamated into a national party, with branches established in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi. All Communists became part of this party.

• The WPPs aimed to operate within the Congress to guide it towards a more radical position, transforming it into a “party of the people.”
• They also intended to independently organise workers and peasants into class associations to achieve complete independence and eventually socialism.

The WPPs swiftly gained traction, and the communist presence within the Congress strengthened, particularly in Bombay. Moreover, Jawaharlal Nehru and other progressive Congress members endorsed the WPPs’ initiatives to radicalise the Congress. Alongside Nehru and Subhas Bose, the youth leagues, and other Left factions, the WPPs played a pivotal role in establishing a robust left-wing within the Congress and steering the Indian national movement to the Left.

India’s Struggle For Independence

The trade union movement was crucial in reviving working-class struggles from 1927 to 1929, helping the Communists establish a strong presence among workers. However, starting in 1929, the rapid growth of Communist influence in the national movement faced two significant setbacks:

Government Repression

• The government became increasingly alarmed by the growing Communist influence in national and trade union movements by 1929.
• In March 1929, the government escalated its repression by arresting thirty-two radical political and trade union activists, including three British Communists—Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, and Lester Hutchinson—who were in India to support the trade union movement.
• The aim was to weaken the trade union movement and isolate the Communists from the national struggle.
• Key leaders were targeted, such as S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, and Shaukat Usmani, who were sentenced to long prison terms in the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case.
• The arrested individuals were put on trial in the Meerut Conspiracy Case, which became a significant issue in India’s fight for freedom.
• Prominent nationalists, including Jawaharlal Nehru, M.A. Ansari, and M.C. Chagla, defended the prisoners, and Gandhiji visited the Meerut prisoners to show support.
• The government’s strategy to marginalize the Communists backfired, raising awareness and support for them.

Shift to Sectarian Politics

• The Communists unexpectedly shifted towards sectarian politics or 'leftist deviation' after the Sixth Congress of the Communist International.
• They severed ties with the National Congress, accusing it of being a party of the bourgeoisie supporting imperialism.
• Left leaders like Nehru and Bose were labelled as 'agents of the bourgeoisie' misleading workers.
• The Communists promoted armed resistance against imperialism and condemned the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931 as a betrayal of nationalism.
• The Workers’ and Peasants’ Party was dissolved, and the focus shifted to creating an 'illegal, independent, and centralised' Communist party.

Isolation and Fragmentation

• This sudden shift in the Communists’ political stance isolated them from the national movement preparing for significant struggles.
• The Communist movement fragmented into several factions, and the government declared the CPI illegal in 1934.
• Despite these challenges, the movement was partly saved as many refused to separate from the Civil Disobedience Movement and actively participated in it.

India's Fight for Freedom

Growth of Left-Wing Ideas

• Socialist and communist ideas gained popularity in India, leading many young people involved in the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) or revolutionary groups to embrace socialism, Marxism, and the Soviet Union, joining the Communist Party of India (CPI) after 1934.

Shift in Communist Politics

• In 1935, under P.C. Joshi, the Communist Party in India was reorganized.
• The Seventh Congress of the Communist International in Moscow advocated for a united front with socialists and anti-fascists in capitalist countries and nationalist movements in colonial regions.
• Indian Communists were encouraged to rejoin the mainstream national movement led by the National Congress.

Dun-Bradley Thesis

• In early 1936, the Dun-Bradley Thesis proposed that the National Congress could play a crucial role in achieving an anti-imperialist people’s front.

Collaboration with the National Congress

• The Communist Party urged its members to join the National Congress and rally the masses under their influence.
• By 1938, the CPI recognized the Congress as the central organization opposing imperialism.
• In 1939, P.C. Joshi emphasized the primacy of national struggle, with Congress as the leading organ.

Peasant Movements and Anti-Imperialist Stance

• From 1936 to 1942, Communists built strong peasant movements in regions like Kerala, Andhra, Bengal, and Punjab.
• The party regained its reputation as a militant anti-imperialist force despite its commitment to leading the national movement under the working class.

Formation of the Congress Socialist Party

• A group of young Congress members dissatisfied with Gandhian strategies and drawn to socialist ideas formed the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in October 1934.
• The CSP was led by Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, and Minoo Masani.

Key Points of the CSP

• National freedom was the primary struggle, with nationalism seen as a step towards socialism.
• Socialists should work within the National Congress, as it was leading the national struggle.
• The goal was to give the Congress and the national movement a socialist direction.
• Organizing workers and peasants in their class organizations and making them the social base of the national struggle was essential.

Transforming the Congress

• The CSP aimed to transform and strengthen the Congress ideologically, gradually convincing members to adopt a socialist vision and a pro-labour, pro-peasant stance.
• This transformation was seen as a process, not a one-time event, with the CSP presenting its program to the Congress for acceptance.

The Transformation of the Congress

• The Congress party went through significant changes in its leadership structure during a crucial period.
• Initially, there was a strong push to replace the existing leaders because they were seen as incapable of advancing the mass struggle for independence.
• The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) aimed to be at the forefront of a new socialist leadership within the Congress party.
• According to the Meerut Thesis of 1935, the objective was to shift anti-imperialist elements away from bourgeois leadership and towards revolutionary socialism.
• However, this idea was later considered unrealistic.
• As a result, a ‘composite’ leadership was established, incorporating socialists at all levels of the Congress party.
• The concept of an alternative Left leadership within the Congress was revisited at significant party sessions, such as Tripuri in 1939 and Ramgarh in 1940.
• Despite this, the CSP and the Communist Party of India (CPI) were hesitant to split the Congress along Left-Right lines, recognising that such a division could weaken the national movement for independence.
• They understood that mobilising the Indian people required Gandhiji's leadership, which was considered essential at that time.
• In contrast to Jawaharlal Nehru, the CSP leadership struggled to fully comprehend this reality, leading to repeated calls for alternative leadership within the Congress.
• The CSP remained grounded in the Indian context, avoiding pushing its opposition to the Congress leadership too far.
• When critical moments arose, they adopted a more realistic approach, similar to Nehru's, which drew criticism from other left-wing groups.

The Rise of the Left-Wing

• In 1939, the Left Wing faced criticism for not supporting Subhas Bose against Gandhiji and the Right wing of the Congress.
• During these challenging times, socialists defended their actions by demonstrating a clear understanding of Indian realities.
• For instance, Jayaprakash Narayan expressed in 1939 that the socialists did not aim to create factions within the Congress or displace the old leadership.
• The CSP leaders were divided into three main ideological streams: Marxian, Fabian, and Gandhian influence.
• This ideological diversity had the potential to be a strength for a broad socialist movement.
• However, the CSP functioned as a cadre-based party within the National Congress movement.
• During the 1930s, Marxism did not accept such diversity, leading to confusion within the CSP.
• Despite their differences, CSP leaders maintained a bond of friendship and shared commitment to nationalism.
• Overall, the CSP identified socialism closely with Marxism.
• Jayaprakash Narayan emphasised in his book Why Socialism? that there is essentially one type of socialism — Marxism.
• As Gandhiji's politics received a more positive assessment, elements of his thought began to influence CSP leadership.
• Additionally, other groups and currents on the Left emerged during the 1930s, such as M.N. Roy, who returned to India in 1930 to organise efforts.

The Left-wing Struggle for Socialism in India's Independence Movement

In 1939, Subhas Bose and his left-wing supporters started the Forward Bloc after Bose was removed as President of the Congress. A strong group of Royists underwent many political and ideological changes over the years.

During the 1930s, various left-wing groups were active, including the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, the Revolutionary Socialist Party, and several Trotskyist groups. Prominent left-wing figures like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Professor N.G. Ranga, and Indulal Yagnik operated outside any organized left-wing party.

Shared Political Goals

The CPI, the CSP, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, and other leftist groups and leaders had a common political agenda. Despite their differences, they collaborated after 1935 to promote socialism in Indian politics. The main features of this agenda included:

• Strong and militant anti-imperialism
• Opposition to landlordism
• Organization of workers and peasants in trade unions and kisan sabhas
• Acceptance of a socialist vision for independent India and a plan for economic and social transformation
• Anti-fascist, anti-colonial, and anti-war foreign policy

Despite being among the most courageous and dedicated freedom fighters, the Left failed to achieve its main aim—establishing the dominance of socialist ideas and parties in the national movement.

Difficulties Faced by the Left

Several factors contribute to this complex issue:

• The Left often opposed the dominant Congress leadership on inappropriate issues.
• When crucial moments arrived, the Left either had to follow the Congress leadership or became isolated from the national movement.
• Unlike the Congress right-wing, the Left lacked ideological and tactical flexibility.
• The Left attempted to challenge the right-wing with oversimplified ideas and radical rhetoric.
• It focused on tactics rather than ideology, arguing that the right-wing compromised with imperialism.

The right-wing had little trouble dismissing such claims, with the public believing them rather than the Left.

Between 1936 and 1937, the Left fought the Right in Congress over election strategies, seen as a compromise with imperialism.

Between 1939 and 1942, the Left campaigned for a mass movement, viewing Gandhiji’s hesitance as a weakness against imperialism.

Between 1945 and 1947, the Left confronted Congress leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru regarding negotiations for transferring power, viewing this as a last effort by British imperialism.

The Left also failed to thoroughly understand Indian realities. Other than Jawaharlal Nehru, the Left considered the dominant Congress leadership as bourgeois and viewed their negotiations as compromises with imperialism. It simplified the analysis of Indian social classes and their political actions.

Misinterpretation of the National Movement

The Left saw attempts to guide the national movement as restrictions and often preferred armed struggle over non-violence. It believed the masses would readily engage in struggles if leaders initiated them. It consistently overestimated its support among the people and failed to grasp the Gandhian strategy of struggle.

A significant weakness of the Left was the inability of various left parties, groups, and individuals to work together effectively.