Bipan Chandra Summary: Twenty - Eight Months of Congress Rule | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Congress Accepts Office under Government of India Act 1935

• The Congress formed ministries in six provinces: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Later, Congress ministries were also established in the North-West Frontier Province and Assam.
• To coordinate activities and prevent the British from provincializing the Congress, a Parliamentary Sub-Committee was formed, including leaders like Sardar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Rajendra Prasad.
• This marked a unique experiment where a party committed to ending British rule took charge of administration under a constitution framed by the British, which allowed only partial state power to Indians.
• The Congress had to function as both a government in the provinces and an opposition to the Central Government, where real power resided.
• It aimed to bring about social reforms in the provinces while continuing the struggle for independence.
• Gandhiji emphasized that accepting these offices was a means to accelerate the pace towards the ultimate goal of independence.

The Psychological Impact of Congress Ministries

• The formation of Congress Ministries significantly changed the psychological atmosphere in the country.
• People felt a sense of victory and empowerment, witnessing khadi-clad individuals who had been imprisoned taking charge of the administration.
• Jawaharlal Nehru described this period as one of immense relief and release of long-suppressed mass energy.
• The old bureaucracy was symbolically challenged as people from various backgrounds entered government offices, feeling a sense of ownership.
• The Congress gained prestige as an alternative power demonstrating its ability to lead and use state power for the benefit of the masses, particularly peasants.
• Although facing constraints imposed by the British Government, Congress Ministries attempted to introduce reforms and improve conditions for the people within their limited powers and time frame.

Example of Congress Ministers

• The Congress Ministers set a strong example of simple living by significantly reducing their own salaries from Rs. 2000 to Rs. 500 per month.
• They made themselves easily accessible to the common people.
• In a short period, they passed numerous laws to address many promises made in the Congress election manifesto.

Commitment to Civil Liberties

• The Congress has a long-standing commitment to defending and promoting civil liberties.
• Major achievements were made in this area by the Congress Ministries.
• All emergency powers that provincial governments gained in 1932 through Public Safety Acts were repealed.
• Bans on illegal political groups, such as the Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues, were lifted.
• Although the ban on the Communist Party remained due to Central Government orders, they could operate freely in Congress provinces.
• Restrictions on the press were completely removed, and financial securities taken from newspapers were refunded.
• The practice of blacklisting newspapers for government advertising was abandoned.
• Confiscated arms were returned, and arms licences that were forfeited were restored.

Reducing Police Powers

• The police were the most feared and disliked among British officials.
• On 21 August 1937, after the formation of the Ministries, Gandhiji noted that the Congress's success would be shown by how well it could rule without relying heavily on the police or military.
• In Congress provinces, police powers were limited, and the monitoring of public speeches by CID agents was stopped.

Release of Political Prisoners

• One of the first actions taken by the Congress Government was to release thousands of political prisoners and detainees.
• Internment and deportation orders against political workers were cancelled.
• Many revolutionaries involved in the Kakori case were released.
• However, issues persisted in U.P. and Bihar, where several revolutionaries convicted of violent crimes remained imprisoned.
• These prisoners had been transferred from kala pani after going on a long hunger strike in July 1937.
• As of February 1938, there were fifteen prisoners in U.P. and twenty-three in Bihar whose release required the Governors' consent.
• The Congress Ministries were determined to secure their release and resigned on 15 February over this issue.
• Ultimately, negotiations led to the release of all prisoners by the end of March.

Comparison with Non-Congress Provinces

• The differences between Congress and non-Congress provinces, such as Bengal and Punjab, were stark.
• In non-Congress provinces, civil liberties were still restricted, and many prisoners were kept without trial.
• Despite hunger strikes and public protests, revolutionary prisoners were not released.

Restoration of Confiscated Lands

• In Bombay, the Government took steps to return lands confiscated during the no-tax campaign from the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930.
• The Government had to threaten resignation to persuade the Governor to agree.
• Pensions of officials dismissed in 1930 and 1932 for supporting the movement were also restored.

Incidents of Prosecution

• Despite these achievements, there were issues in the Congress ministerial record.
• In July 1937, Yusuf Meherally, a Socialist leader, was prosecuted for an inflammatory speech but was soon released.
• In October 1937, S.S. Batliwala was sentenced to six months for a seditious speech, causing outrage among Congress members led by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Speech and Civil Liberties

• Speech against colonial rule should not lead to prosecution
• Nehru's concern about potential arrest for speaking out in Madras
• Batliwala's release and continued speeches raised suspicion
• Concerns about the future stance of the Congress Right wing

Concerns about Right-Wing Congress Ministers

• Troubling mindset of some right-wing Congress ministers
• K.M. Munshi's monitoring of Communists led to reprimand from Nehru
• Madras Government's police surveillance of radical Congress members
• Need to consider growth of civil liberties in Bombay and Madras
• Majority of Congress members vigilant about civil liberties
• Left-wing Congress members pressured right-wing ministers to respect civil liberties

Economic Relief and Agrarian Reform

 Congress Ministries aimed for immediate economic relief for peasants and workers, focusing on colonial poverty causes. They planned agrarian reforms, promising changes in land tenure, rent, and debt. 

Strategy for Agrarian Legislation

•  Congress was dedicated to agrarian reform, promising changes in land tenure systems and reductions in rent, land revenue, and debt burdens. 
•  During the election, they encouraged rural voters to support their candidates with strong commitments to agrarian issues. 
•  Voters took these promises seriously; for instance, in Pratapgarh, U.P., many protested eviction orders by bringing and lighting dried cow dung at polling stations, a protest against ‘bedakhlis.’ 

Limitations of Agrarian Reform

•  Congress faced challenges in fully eliminating the zamindari system due to the 1935 Act, which restricted provincial ministries' powers. 
•  Lack of financial resources hindered efforts, as most revenue was under Government of India control. 
•  Administrative structure was safeguarded by Viceroy and Governor powers. 
•  Class adjustment strategy required balancing various class interests to unify against colonialism. 
•  Winning over or neutralising landlords was crucial to isolate colonial adversaries, especially since smaller landlords were part of the national movement. 
•  Leaders like Swami Sahajanand acknowledged Congress's representation of all classes and society sections. 

Objective

• The Congress aimed to foster harmony among different classes while advancing its efforts.
• Time was a crucial constraint, as Congress leaders recognized the limited duration of their Ministries.
• They understood that their core political stance was to oppose imperialism rather than collaborate with it.
• Nehru, in his Discovery of India, reflected on the persistent sense of an impending crisis, which was integral to the situation.
• Even after assuming office, the Congress expected their policies to last only two years.
• This time pressure intensified with rising tensions in Europe from 1938 onwards.
• Consequently, Congress Ministries needed to act swiftly and achieve as much as possible within the limited timeframe.

Congress Ministries and Legislative Challenges

• Most Congress-led states had conservative second chambers in the form of legislative councils.
• These councils were elected with a very limited franchise, leading to their domination by landlords, capitalists, and moneylenders.
• Congress held a minority in these councils, making it necessary to pressure and appease upper-class members to pass legislation.
• For example, the Bihar Government compromised with zamindars on tenancy laws, and the U.P. Government took a cautious approach to debt legislation to gain support from moneylenders and merchants.

Agrarian Challenges and Reforms

• The agrarian system in various parts of India was complex and evolved over centuries, with unclear information about land rights and other elements.
• Debt and money lending issues were intricately linked to peasant production and livelihoods, making them too complicated for simple solutions.
• Structural reforms in the agrarian sector would be extremely challenging and time-consuming, as later evidenced by Congress and Communist efforts to reform agrarian structures post-independence.

Achievements of Congress Ministries

• Despite facing challenges, the agrarian policies of the Congress Ministries significantly benefitted peasants.
• Agrarian laws varied across provinces, influenced by agricultural relationships, Congress support bases, local leadership views, and peasant mobilization levels.
• These laws generally addressed tenancy rights, security of tenure, tenant rents, and rural indebtedness issues.

Specific Legislative Successes

• In U.P., a tenancy act was enacted in October 1939, granting all statutory tenants in Agra and Oudh full hereditary rights to their holdings, removing landlords' ability to restrict occupancy growth.
• Rents for hereditary tenants could only be changed after ten years, with limits on landlords raising rents even after this period.
• A tenant could no longer be arrested or imprisoned for failing to pay rent, and all illegal demands such as nazrana (forced gifts) and begar (forced unpaid labour) were abolished.
• In Bihar, new tenancy laws were implemented mainly in 1937 and 1938, achieving results faster than in U.P.
• This legislation was generally more progressive than U.P.’s, with key provisions including the cancellation of all rent increases since 1911, resulting in an estimated 25% reduction in rent.
• Rent reductions were also applied if prices fell, soil quality deteriorated, or irrigation was neglected by landlords.
• Occupancy ryots were granted the right to transfer their holdings for a nominal fee of 2% of the rent to the landlord.
• A significant change was granting occupancy rights to under-ryots who had farmed the land for twelve years.
• Outstanding rent arrears were significantly lowered, and the interest rate on these arrears was reduced from 12.5% to 6.25%.

Twenty-Eight Months Of Congress Rule

1. Tenancy Reforms

Bengal Tenancy Act (1938)

• Sharecropping: The landlord's share could not exceed 9/20 of the produce.
• Bakasht Land: Lands sold to clear debts between 1929 and 1937 were to be returned to previous tenants for half the amount owed.
• Landlord Powers: Landlords' powers were significantly reduced:
• Tenants could not be arrested or imprisoned for non-payment.
• Their property could not be sold without their consent.
• Illegal dues could not be charged, with violations leading to six months' imprisonment.
• Occupancy tenants could not be evicted for non-payment of rent.
• Landlord Rights: The only right landlords retained was to receive rent, which was substantially lowered.

Orissa Tenancy Bill

• In Orissa, a tenancy bill passed in May 1938 permitted the free transfer of occupancy holdings.
• The interest on rent arrears was reduced from 12.5 to 6 per cent.
• All illegal charges imposed on tenants were abolished.
• A bill in February 1938 aimed to lower rents in zamindari areas transferred from the Madras presidency to Orissa. However, the Governor rejected it, fearing significant income loss for zamindars.

Madras Recommendations

• In Madras, a committee led by T. Prakasam recommended that in Permanent Zamindari Settlement areas, the ryot (tenant) owned the soil, not the zamindar (landlord).
• This change would have reduced rents by about two-thirds and effectively ended the zamindari system.
• Premier C. Rajagopalachari supported the recommendations but opposed compensating zamindars.
• In January 1939, the Legislative Assembly accepted these recommendations. However, before a bill could be drafted, the Ministry resigned.

Tenancy Reforms in Other Regions

• Tenancy reforms were also implemented in the legislatures of Bombay, the Central Provinces, and the North-West Frontier Province.
• These agrarian laws improved the status of millions of tenants and secured their rights in zamindari areas.
• However, the fundamental system of landlordism remained unchanged.
• Only statutory and occupancy tenants benefited from these reforms, while the rights of sub-tenants and agricultural labourers were largely overlooked.
• This oversight occurred because sub-tenants and agricultural labourers had not yet been organized by the kisan sabhas (peasant councils) and were not voters due to the limited franchise under the Act of 1935.
• As a result, they could not exert pressure on the Ministries through elections or peasant movements.

Debtors' Relief Acts

• With the exceptions of U.P. and Assam, the Congress Government enacted stringent debtors' relief acts regulating moneylenders.
• These acts included cancelling or significantly reducing accrued interest, varying from 6.25% in Madras to 9% in Bombay and Bihar.
• The Governments also initiated modest rural reconstruction programmes, such as liberating 40,000 tied serfs in Bombay, and abolishing or reducing grazing fees in forests.
• Landlords opposed the tenancy bills, while moneylenders and some lawyers resisted the debtors' relief bills.

Pro-Labour Stance

• The Congress Ministries generally adopted a pro-labour position.
• They aimed to protect workers' interests while maintaining industrial peace.
• Efforts included reducing strikes, establishing conciliation mechanisms, and advocating for mandatory arbitration.
• They sought to foster goodwill between labour and capital, with Congress ministers acting as intermediaries.
• At the same time, they worked to improve workers' conditions and secure wage increases.
• This approach worried the Indian capitalist class, prompting them to organise to advocate for their interests.

Provincial Governments and Labour Issues

Textile Enquiry Committee and Wage Increase

• Bombay Ministry. After taking office, the Bombay Ministry set up a Textile Enquiry Committee.
• Recommendations for Improvement. The committee suggested various improvements, including a wage increase of one crore rupees.
• Implementation Despite Objections. Despite objections from mill owners, the recommendations were put into action.

Industrial Disputes Act (1938)

• Focus on Class Collaboration. The Act emphasized class collaboration rather than conflict.
• Methods of Resolution. It focused on conciliation, arbitration, and negotiations over direct action.
• Prevention of Strikes and Lockouts. Aimed to prevent sudden strikes and lockouts.
• Court of Industrial Arbitration. The government could refer disputes to this court.
• Temporary Ban on Strikes and Lockouts. No strikes or lockouts were allowed for four months while awaiting the Court's decision.
• Opposition from Left Congress. Left Congress members opposed the Act for limiting the right to strike and introducing a complex process for registering trade unions.

Labour Enquiry Committee (1938)

• Formation in Response to Strike. Formed after a major strike in May 1938, led by Rajendra Prasad.
• Recommendations of the Committee :
• Wage Increases. Recommended wage increases and a minimum wage of Rs. 15 per month.
• Arbitration Board. Suggested forming an arbitration board.
• Independent Recruitment. Recommended independent recruitment for all mills.
• Maternity Benefits. Suggested maternity benefits for women workers.
• Recognition of Mazdur Sabha. Recommended recognizing the Left-leaning Mazdur Sabha by employers.
• Initial Rejection and Acceptance. Employers initially rejected the report but accepted its main recommendations due to government pressure.
• Bihar Labour Enquiry Committee. A similar committee set up in Bihar in 1938, also chaired by Rajendra Prasad, advocating for enhanced trade union rights and improved labour conditions.

Social Reforms and Welfare Measures by Congress Governments

• Prohibition. Introduced in selected areas across different states.
• Advancement of Untouchables (Harijans). Measures taken to allow Harijans access to temples and public resources, and restrictions on civil disabilities imposed on them were made illegal.
• Scholarships and Employment. Increased scholarships for Harijan students and efforts to include more Harijans in government jobs.
• Education and Health. Focus on improving primary, technical, and higher education, public health, and sanitation, with expanded education initiatives for girls and Harijans.
• Mass Literacy Campaigns. Organised for adults.
• Support for Khadi and Village Industries. Provided support for khadi, spinning, and village industries.
• Prison Reform and Industrial Growth. Implemented prison reform initiatives and removed barriers to indigenous industrial growth, actively promoting new industrial projects.

Participation in National Planning

• National Planning Committee. Congress governments participated in planning through this committee established in 1938 by Congress President Subhas Bose.
• Strategy of Mass Political Activity. The Congress strategy involved maintaining mass political activity and popular mobilisation, even during peaceful phases of the national movement.
• Jawaharlal Nehru's Message. As Congress president, Nehru circulated a message to all party members to promote such activities.

Focus on Organizational Work

On July 10, 1937, Congress members emphasized that the primary focus of the Congress should be on organizational and other activities outside the legislature. They argued that legislative work would be less meaningful without this focus. They stressed the importance of connecting both forms of activity and ensuring that the public is informed and involved in their actions. The initiative, they believed, must come from the masses.

Forms of Mass Political Activity

The discussion revolved around the forms that mass political activity should take and how to coordinate work in administration and legislation with political efforts outside. A key concern was how the elected government should respond to popular protests, especially those challenging existing laws. There were no clear historical examples to follow, and different regions had different approaches. Unfortunately, this topic has not been deeply explored by historians, except for a case study of U.P. by Visalakshi Menon.

• Menon found that legislative and administrative activities were well-coordinated with extra-parliamentary efforts in U.P.
• There was significant mass mobilization, which included:
  • Establishing Congress committees in villages.
  • Forming popular authority bodies like Congress police stations and panchayats for local justice.
  • Organizing mass petitions to government officials.
  • Setting up Congress grievance committees to address local issues.
  • Conducting mass literacy campaigns to explain government workings.
  • Organizing various local, district, and provincial events.
• Local Congress committees, Assembly members, and leaders were involved in these mobilizations.
• Further research may reveal that not all Congress governments successfully coordinated administration with popular mobilization.
• By 1939, even in U.P., mass mobilization was diminishing.

The Dilemma of Organizing Protests

The dilemma also arose regarding the nature of political work outside legislatures, which involved organizing protests. How could a government party also lead popular movements while maintaining law and order? What if some protests turned violent or illegal? How should the government respond, considering its duty to uphold laws? This raises fundamental questions about the state's role in modern society, whether capitalist or socialist.

Congress's Strategy for Influence

Additionally, increasing Congress's influence depended on demonstrating its capacity to govern. However, the existing laws were colonial laws. How could a government intent on abolishing these laws enforce them?

• On one hand, the long-suppressed masses aimed to pressure Ministries to meet their demands swiftly, perceiving Congress Ministries as their own.
• On the other hand, fulfilling these demands was slow due to the constraints of constitutional processes.
• This issue might have appeared easily solvable to Congressmen committed to non-violence.
• However, other Congress members, including Communists, Socialists, and non-Congress activists, believed that expanded civil liberties should be used to advocate for more militant or even violent agitation.
• They sought to demonstrate the inadequacy of non-violence and the Congress strategy.

Reforms

Could governance and tolerance, it’s not a promotion of violent forms of protest coexist?

Congressmen's Perspectives

• Many Congressmen aimed to support and strengthen the Congress Ministries.
• They tried to avoid creating situations that would force the Government to take punitive actions.
• Some Congressmen wanted to highlight the 'breaches of faith and promises' by these Ministries.
• They portrayed the Congress as a political organ of the upper classes, similar to imperialist authorities.
• Others viewed critics and militants as disorderly forces expressing anger.
• C. Rajagopalachari and K.M. Munshi used state power in a politically repressive way.
• Historians have not fully explored the complexities of this situation.
• This dilemma can be analyzed against the actions of Communists and radical parties post-1947.

Impact of Congress Ministries

• The formation of Congress Ministries resulted in increased civil liberties and popular energies.
• Kisan sabhas emerged nationwide with a significant rise in trade union activities.
• There was a revival of student and youth movements.
• Left parties expanded significantly during this period.
• Despite a ban, the Communist Party published its weekly, The National Front, from Bombay.
• The CSP produced The Congress Socialist and other journals in various Indian languages.
• The Kirti Communists published Kirti Lehar in Meerut due to restrictions in Punjab.

Clashes with Congress Governments

• Many popular movements clashed with Congress Governments during this period.
• In Bihar, the kisan movement confronted the Ministry, urging peasants not to pay rent or occupy landlords' lands.
• There were incidents of physical attacks on landlords and looting of crops.
• Kisan Sabha workers popularised militant slogans like: Logan Lenge Kaise and Lathi Men Sathi.
• This led to a breakdown in relations between the Bihar kisan Sabha and provincial Congress leadership.

Workers' Strikes

• On 7 November 1938, AITUC, Communists, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's followers organised a strike in Bombay against the Industrial Disputes Act.
• This strike involved seventeen out of seventy-seven textile mills.
• There were instances of 'disorder' and stone throwing, resulting in police injuries.
• The police fired on protesters, killing two and injuring over seventy.
• The Madras Government took a strong stance against strikes, which sometimes turned violent.
• Kanpur workers also struck repeatedly, often with violent confrontations with police.
• However, they often received support from Congress during these strikes.

Congress Ministries' Responses

• Congress Ministries faced challenges in addressing discontent among their own supporters.
• They attempted to mediate successfully in U.P. and Bihar, but their efforts in Bombay were unsuccessful.
• Overall, they struggled to appease Left-wing critics.
• The Ministries treated militant protests as law and order issues.
• They used Section 144 of the Criminal Code against protesting workers.
• Leaders of peasant and trade unions were arrested, even in Kanpur.
• Jawaharlal Nehru privately expressed dissatisfaction with the Ministries' handling of popular protests, although he maintained a different public stance.

Challenges Faced by Congress

• Harm to Popularity: Gandhiji observed that Congress's popularity suffered due to the frequent use of law and order measures against protests. This approach made it increasingly difficult to organize future mass movements against colonial rule.
• Dilemma Recognition: He recognized the dilemma posed by this situation and wrote extensively about it during 1938-39. Gandhiji suggested that if Congress Ministries relied on police and military actions, it was a strong indication that they should resign and seek a better path.

Weaknesses in Congress

• Factional Strife: The period of Congress Ministries exposed significant weaknesses within the party, marked by considerable factional strife, both ideologically and personally.
• Central Provinces Conflict: An example of this internal conflict was the turmoil within the Congress Ministry in the Central provinces, which ultimately led to Dr. N.B. Khare's resignation as premier.
• Bogus Membership: The issue of bogus membership began to surface and grow during this period, indicating a decline in organizational integrity.
• Indiscipline and Opportunism: There was a noticeable increase in indiscipline among Congress members, driven by a scramble for jobs and personal advantages. Opportunists and careerists were attracted to the party by the prospect of power, further contributing to the decline in discipline.

The Congress and Its Challenges

Casteism and Corruption

• The party in power began to infiltrate the Congress at various levels. This was possible because the Congress was an open party that welcomed anyone. Many Congress members started to succumb to casteism in their quest for power.
• Gandhiji increasingly felt that the Congress was weakening from within. He often expressed his despair in the columns of Haryana, criticizing the growing misuse of office and the creeping corruption among Congress ranks.
• He told the Gandhi Seva Sangh workers in May 1939, “I would prefer to give the whole Congress organisation a decent burial rather than tolerate the rampant corruption.”
• Earlier, in November 1938, he had written in Haryana. “If the Congress is not purged of illegalities and irregularities, it will cease to be the power it is today and will fail to meet expectations when the real struggle confronts the country.”
• Gandhiji recognised that this weakening of moral values among Congressmen was partly unavoidable during a phase of non-mass struggle.

Jawaharlal Nehru's Concerns

• Jawaharlal Nehru also felt that the positive role of the Congress Ministries was diminishing.
• In a letter to Gandhiji on 28 April 1938, he expressed his belief that the Congress ministries were working inefficiently, adapting too much to the old order, and losing their high standing among the people.
• Nehru felt they were sinking to the level of ordinary politicians driven by day-to-day opportunism and party conflicts.

Resignation of Congress Ministries

• The Congress Ministries resigned in October 1939 due to the political crisis caused by World War II.
• However, Gandhiji welcomed these resignations as a means to cleanse the Congress of rampant corruption.
• He believed that the resignations would drive away parasites from the Congress and help avoid past wrongdoings.
• These resignations also had a positive effect by bringing the Left and Right factions in the Congress closer together due to a shared stance on war participation.

Achievements of the Congress Ministries

• The legislative and administrative record of the Congress Ministries was generally positive.
• R. Coupland noted in 1944 that Indian self-government was essential for addressing India's social backwardness, confirming the old argument.
• Nehru, initially critical of the Congress Ministries in 1938-39, later expressed astonishment at their achievements during a brief period of two years and a quarter, despite facing numerous challenges.
• The Left, while critical, had its expectations largely met in the long run.
• In 1935, Wang Ming highlighted the revolutionary movements in colonial countries, emphasizing the need for Indian communists to create a programme of popular demands for a broad anti-imperialist united front.
• Such demands included opposition to the slavish constitution, immediate liberation of political prisoners, abolition of extraordinary laws, and objections to lowering wages and lengthening working hours.

Day and Discharge of Workers

• Against burdensome taxes, high land rents
• Against confiscation of peasants’ lands for non-payment of debts
• For the establishment of democratic rights

Certainly, the Congress Ministries fulfilled this agenda more or less in entirety.

Handling of Communal Riots

• One of the great achievements of the Congress Governments was their firm handling of communal riots.
• They instructed district magistrates and police officers to take strong action against communal outbreaks.

Foiling Imperialist Designs

• The Congress leadership foiled the imperialist attempt to weaken the national movement through constitutional reforms.
• Instead, they showed how the constitutional structure could be used to further their aims without being co-opted.
• Despite certain weaknesses, the Congress emerged stronger during their time in office.

Enhancing National Consciousness

• The national movement remained focused on fighting for self-government, even while managing day-to-day administration.
• Offices helped enhance national consciousness and increased the nationalist influence.
• This strengthened the movement's ability to wage mass struggles in the future.
• The movement extended its influence to the bureaucracy, particularly at lower levels.

Impact on the Indian Civil Service

• The morale of the Indian Civil Service, a key part of the British Empire, suffered significantly.
• Many ICS officers began to believe that British departure from India was inevitable.

Fear of Congress Resuming Power

• During the Quit India Movement, the fear that Congress might regain power helped neutralise many hostile elements.
• This included landlords and bureaucrats, leading many to adopt a neutral stance.

Perception of Popular Support

• Visalakshi Menon noted that there was no popular disillusionment with Congress during the Ministry's period.
• People could see more clearly what independence could bring.

Unity and Discipline in Congress

• There was no rise in provincialism or decrease in the sense of Indian unity, contrary to what the framers of the Act of 1935 hoped.
• The Ministries successfully created. united front before the Government of India.
• Despite factionalism, the Congress organisation remained disciplined.
• Factionalism was kept in check by the central leadership.

Resignation and Focus on Freedom

• When an all-India political crisis arose, the Ministries resigned promptly as directed by the Congress leadership.
• Opportunists began to leave, demonstrating that Congress was not seeking power for its own sake.

Avoiding Division within Congress

• The Congress successfully avoided. split between its Left and Right wings, which the British were trying to encourage since 1934.
• Despite strong critiques, the two wings remained united and even drew closer together during the Tripuri crisis.

Influencing All Sections of Society

• The Congress influenced various sections of the populace, advancing its growth and nationalist hegemony.
• Mass struggles challenged the idea that British power was invincible.
• Seeing Indians in positions of power shattered the myth that Indians were unfit to govern themselves.