O P Gauba Summary: Concept of Ideology-6 | PSIR Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Feminism

• Feminism is concerned with the status and role of women in relation to men.
• It highlights the injustices that women have faced and continue to face because of their sex, and seeks effective solutions to address these issues.
• Essentially, feminism protests against the inferior status of women in society, which is a result of the patriarchal system that is not based on reason.

Patriarchy

• The term patriarchy literally means "rule of the father."
• Initially, it described a social system where the male head of the household held authority.
• Now, it refers to male dominance in general, impacting both the workplace and the home.
• Early feminism emerged during the Enlightenment, aiming to expand the 'rights of man' to include equal rights for women.
• In Britain, pioneering women like Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) and Harriet Taylor (1807-59) passionately advocated for women's rights.
• Later, John Stuart Mill (1806-73) argued in his essay The Subjection of Women (1869) that women were equally capable as men and therefore deserved equal rights.
• Today, the issues surrounding women's status are better understood by distinguishing between sex and gender.

Introduction

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in the 18th century across France, Germany, and Great Britain. During this period, people's religious and political lives were liberated from obscure and orthodox beliefs, leading to new insights into human affairs.

This era fostered a fresh perspective guided by reason and the power of scientific research and discovery. Old superstitions were cast aside, fears were alleviated, and a new trust in knowledge gained through the scientific method emerged.

Sex and Gender

To understand the concepts of sex and gender in sociological terms, it is important to recognize their differences:

• Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, including reproductive functions and secondary characteristics such as body hair and breast development.
• Gender encompasses cultural ideas and expectations that shape perceptions of both females and males.
• While nature divides humans into men and women, their societal status and roles are influenced by culture.
• When we use terms like 'women' or 'females,' or prioritize women in certain contexts, we move beyond biological differences to consider cultural factors.

Culture

Culture refers to the collective values, beliefs, symbols, thought patterns, behaviors, artistic styles, and skills developed by a group to enhance its social life. These elements contribute to establishing a distinctive identity for the group.

Understanding Gender in Social Sciences

Social Evolution

In social sciences and literary criticism, the term 'gender' refers to the differences in social status between men and women, with a particular focus on the lower status often assigned to women. Feminist thought advocates for a gender perspective, which calls for a cultural shift in society to re-evaluate women's status in relation to men within social and political contexts.

Culture and Gender Roles

Culture typically refers to the distinct characteristics of different groups. However, common attitudes towards gender are often observed across various societies, categorizing male and female personality traits and behaviours into two opposing groups:

• Masculinity : Associated with traits such as aggressiveness, logical thinking, emotional control, and a dominant attitude.
• Femininity : Linked to traits like peacefulness, intuition, emotional expressiveness, and submissiveness.

These characteristics can vary depending on social situations. For example, a wife may be submissive to her husband but assertive with her children, and the degree of a woman's submissiveness can differ from one situation to another.

Cultural Dominance and Gender Inequality

The relative dominance of men and the submissiveness of women are cultural traits found in many societies, although they are not universal. These traits generally stem from a social structure based on patriarchy, the division of family labour, and the competitive nature of capitalism. From this perspective, the notions of masculinity and femininity can serve as tools for social control, reinforcing male dominance. For instance, a woman exhibiting authoritarian behaviour, particularly towards men, may be perceived as indecent. Ultimately, societal expectations regarding the different roles of men and women form the foundation of gender inequality.

J.J. Rousseau and Inequality

Inequality and Feminism

In his essay "A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality" (1755), J.J. Rousseau (1712-78) differentiated between natural inequality and conventional inequality. Natural inequality involves differences in age, health, beauty, and physical and intellectual abilities, which are determined by nature and are largely unchangeable. On the other hand, conventional inequalities pertain to differences in wealth, status, and power, which arise from social structures and can be critically examined in terms of justice. Conventional inequalities are changeable by altering social structures. For instance, the division of society into males and females is a natural inequality, while the resulting gender inequalities are shaped by convention and culture and can be challenged and eliminated.

Issues Related to Sex and Gender

• Division of Society into Men and Women
• Point of Division
• Basis of Division
• Product of Nature
• Product of Culture
• Symptom of Division
• Natural Inequality
• Conventional Inequality
• Character of Division
• Unalterable
• Alterable

Responses to gender-based discrimination have manifested as feminist theory, which advocates for equal rights for women and men. Feminism has evolved through various waves, each addressing different facets of inequality and women's rights. The movement is committed to enhancing women's status in society and rectifying historical injustices where women were denied equal opportunities compared to men.

Women's Status Today

Women account for half of the global population, contribute nearly two-thirds of total work hours, yet receive only one-tenth of total income and own less than one-hundredth of global property (United Nations Report, 1980). This disparity has remained relatively unchanged over the years.

Biological and Cultural Factors

The biological differences between men and women do not justify the lower status of women. In fact, cultural factors have exaggerated these biological differences. The significant progress in women's athletic achievements in recent years suggests that social norms have influenced biology and limited women's physical growth. Feminist anthropologists have observed that in certain cultures, the physical differences between men and women are less pronounced than in others. The current status of women is largely shaped by social arrangements.

• Women typically spend a significant amount of time on household tasks and raising children.
• Most women do not have the opportunity to develop their own interests.
• They are often led to believe that their role should focus on the household and that they should not engage in public life.
• From a young age, girls are encouraged to prioritize personal relationships over personal achievements.
• Boys are taught to be assertive and competitive, while girls are taught to be obedient and passive.
• Boys are pushed towards careers such as doctors, engineers, and lawyers, while girls are encouraged to become teachers, nurses, or secretaries.
• The experiences women gain in their professions often do not prepare them for a career in politics.

Women Status and Injustice

Feminist Progress

The status of women must be examined, questioned, and transformed in response to the increasing social awareness of various forms of injustice. Feminist theory and movements contend that the circumstances of women and the disparities between men and women should be regarded as fundamental political concerns. All branches of feminist thought concentrate on the causes and remedies for women's inequality, subordination, or oppression.

Historical Background

• If injustice against women has been present since ancient times, why has it only recently come to the forefront?
• In early social setups, the biological differences between men and women led to a natural division of labor.
• Men, due to their physical strength, took on roles like hunting and other hazardous tasks, while women focused on childbearing and domestic responsibilities.
• This arrangement was based on mutual care and did not involve significant resentment or conflict.

Evolution of Social Structure

• With technological advancements, various aspects of social structure evolved, but the fundamental division of labor remained largely unchanged.
• Men increasingly asserted power as heads of families, clans, and tribes, while women continued to occupy subordinate roles.
• Women were often perceived as the 'weaker sex,' leading to some concessions from arduous tasks but reinforcing their subordinate status.

Cultural Perceptions

• Women were frequently viewed as sexually and emotionally vulnerable, which restricted their interactions with unfamiliar individuals.
• Cultural norms glorified shyness as a desirable feminine trait.
• Women were encouraged to enhance their beauty, and this aspect was celebrated in various forms of art and poetry.
• Socially, they were recognized as the 'fair sex,' which provided them with a certain level of dignity within the societal framework.

Systematic Disempowerment

• Despite the emphasis on women's roles within social life, they were systematically stripped of real power and agency.
• While women were offered security, they were denied opportunities to acquire skills that would enable them to assert equality.
• Fundamental rights such as property ownership, voting, and access to education were denied to women, without any logical justification related to their biological status.
• The early advocacy for women's rights focused on addressing these critical issues of deprivation and inequality.

Mary Wollstonecraft and the Fight for Women's Rights

Feminist Empowerment

• Mary Wollstonecraft wrote "Vindication of the Rights of Women" in 1792, a time when women faced severe restrictions.
• Back then, women couldn’t vote, were considered unfit for education, and were excluded from many jobs. They also couldn’t own property legally. Even in cases of abuse, women had no real right to divorce.
• Wollstonecraft strongly challenged the notion of women’s inferiority and argued for equal rights for women, similar to those of men.
• Her essay laid the groundwork for future movements advocating for women’s rights in areas such as education, employment, property ownership, and voting.
• John Stuart Mill, in his work "The Subjection of Women" (1869), supported Wollstonecraft’s ideas by asserting that women were not less capable than men and called for their full legal and political rights.

Evolution of Feminist Theory

 In the 19th century,  feminist theory primarily aimed at dismantling educational and professional barriers hindering women. The campaigns driving this movement were often quite militant and eventually led to the struggle for women's suffrage in the early 20th century.

 In contemporary times,  the focus has shifted to employment rights, equal pay, and ensuring equality in social benefits, taxation, and various other domains.

Contemporary Advances and Ongoing Struggles

• Advancements in technology and the broadening of industrial sectors have opened up new avenues for women to demonstrate their capabilities.
• There is a growing encouragement for women to pursue higher qualifications and respectable careers, with a recognition that they can excel in jobs previously considered suitable only for men.
• Despite these significant strides, the struggle for equal rights for women persists across various fields.

Overview of Feminism

Feminist Progress

Feminist theory has evolved into various schools of thought, with three being particularly significant: Liberal feminism, Radical feminism, and Socialist feminism.

Liberal Feminism

• Liberal feminism aims to revive traditional feminist ideals and advocates for complete equality of opportunity for men and women in all areas, calling for the elimination of gender-based discrimination.
• Its agenda includes:
  • Equal pay for equal work
  • Reform of abortion laws
  • Greater representation of women in parliaments, bureaucracy, and respected professions
• This branch of feminism is the most popular, although it is not seen as highly influential.

Radical Feminism

• Shulamith Firestone, a prominent figure in radical feminism, argued in her book The Dialectic of Sex (1970) that women’s oppression is unique and cannot be understood merely as part of a larger system of domination like racism or class division.
• Firestone believed that women were the first oppressed group in history and that their subordination cannot be resolved through measures like eliminating prejudice or class society.
• While acknowledging the role of biological factors, Firestone emphasized the significant impact of social and cultural elements on women’s oppression.
• She argued that human reproductive biology led to the perception of women as the weaker sex.
• Historically, the survival of women and children depended on the ability of infants to rely on breastfeeding women, who were in turn dependent on men.
• However, by the twentieth century, advancements such as reliable contraceptives, baby foods, and ‘test-tube babies’ enabled women to break free from these biological constraints.
• These technological progressions allowed women to share the roles of childbearing and child-rearing with society, including men.

Kate Millett 

In her book Sexual Politics (1971), Kate Millett argued that the relationship between the sexes is rooted in power and upheld by an ideology. She drew parallels between this dynamic and the relationships among classes and races, advocating for the view that these should be understood as political relationships. Millett, influenced by Max Weber's theory of domination, contended that men exert control over women through: Social authority Economic force

She called for the dismantling of these instruments of male domination. Alongside Shulamith Firestone, Millett is recognized as a pivotal figure in radical feminism, significantly shaping the Women's Liberation Movement in the 1970s.

Socialist Feminism

The socialist stream of feminism combines the patriarchal perspectives of radical feminism with the class analysis of Marxism. It posits that both capitalists and men gain from the subordination of women. Socialist feminists emphasize: Labour analysis, encompassing both wage and domestic labour Cultural roles Psychoanalytical aspects of sexuality

Sheila Rowbatham (1943- ), a prominent figure in this movement, advocated for a participatory and decentralised approach to social change, aiming to link the struggles of all oppressed groups. In her influential works: Women, Resistance and Revolution (1972) Hidden from History (1973)

Rowbatham aimed to recover women's history as a reservoir of knowledge and strength for their contemporary struggles. She continued this theme in The Past is before Us (1989). As a Marxist, she maintained that the fight for women's liberation is intrinsically connected to broader struggles.

Against Capitalism

Women's Empowerment

Historical evidence presented by S. D. highlights the close connection between class exploitation and women’s oppression. She argues that progress in these areas can only be achieved by uniting these struggles.

Empowerment of Women

There is now a widespread awareness of the exploitation of women across various fronts, including social, cultural, political, and economic aspects. This awareness has led to strong protests, most notably the Women’s Liberation Movement, which started in the United States in the early 1970s and quickly spread to Europe and other parts of the world.

The Women’s Liberation Movement aimed for equal rights and status for women in a society dominated by men. Several prominent organisations were associated with this movement, including:

• National Organization for Women (NOW)
• Boston’s Bread and Roses
• Berkeley Women’s Liberation Group
• Women’s Radical Action Project
• Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL)
• National Women’s Political Caucus (NWPC)

Broadly, the Women’s Liberation Movement called for equitable treatment of all genders and required a fundamental reassessment and change of many societal myths, values, and beliefs regarding the role of women. These changes needed to cover various aspects of life, including:

Areas of Focus

• Work and family patterns
• Social behaviour
• Decision-making
• Politics
• Religion
• Education
• Sexuality

The movement sparked widespread debate on various issues concerning women, such as:

• Day-care facilities for children
• The development of a non-sexist vocabulary (e.g., replacing “chairman” with “chairperson”)
• The representation of women in the mass media, including advertising

These debates have not only led to the enactment of new laws in some countries but also to the global acceptance of new norms that protect the dignity of women.

Laws Protecting Women in India

Empowered Women

In India, there are several important laws designed to protect women, including:

• Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956
• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
• Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
• Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
• Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994, aimed at preventing female foeticide
• Recent laws for women’s empowerment include the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, which gives daughters equal rights to inherit property in joint family, and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

Participation of Women in Public Life

Feminists believe that true citizenship for women can only be achieved when they are able to participate equally in public life. In India, several steps have been taken to promote this, such as:

• Reserving one-third of seats in panchayats (local councils) for women to encourage their involvement in local politics
• Gradually increasing women’s representation in legislative assemblies and parliament to fifty percent
• Providing greater opportunities for higher education to support women’s representation in administration and other prominent professions

Challenges Despite Legal Citizenship

Feminists argue that despite having legal citizenship, women still face societal subjection and challenges. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the focus has been on the status of women in society and politics, especially with movements advocating for women’s rights. Important points include:

• It was once thought that after achieving legal equality, women would have no further grievances
• After women gained the right to vote, studies indicated that their participation in voting was lower than that of men
• This lower participation was attributed to women often prioritizing private and domestic concerns over political involvement

Women's Political Representation

Women in Politics

As family sizes shrank and more women joined the workforce, traditional views on women's roles became outdated. While more women started voting, their representation in political positions remained very low. Even though many countries had nearly fifty percent women in their electorates, the actual political representation of women was much lower than that of men.

• In Western Europe, women made up less than ten percent of legislative bodies.
• In the British House of Commons, their representation was below five percent.
• The situation in the United States House of Representatives was similar.
• Scandinavian countries were doing better, with women's membership in legislatures at:
  • Sweden and Denmark: 26 percent
  • Norway: 34 percent

Women in International Politics

Women's representation in international politics is still limited. In November 1990, thirty-four Heads of Government from European countries gathered to sign the important Charter of Paris for the New Europe, which marked the end of the Cold War. The media referred to this event as the 'end of an era.' However, feminists question what era truly ended, emphasizing that it was not the patriarchal era.

• In the group photo of the thirty-four leaders, only two women were present:
  • Gro Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway
  • Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of Britain
• Shortly after, Mrs. Thatcher resigned, and a man replaced her.
• This situation raises questions about the impact of granting full political rights to women when their public representation remains so low.
• By the end of 2005, Germany elected its first woman Chancellor.
• By early 2006, Chile and Liberia had elected their women Presidents.
• In 2007, India and Argentina also had women Presidents.

Women's Representation in Politics

Empowered Leadership

In countries outside of Europe and America, the representation of women in political positions of authority is quite low, despite some women achieving high offices. Countries like Sri Lanka, Israel, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh have a history of women serving as Prime Ministers or Heads of Government. However, the overall number of women in high political offices remains small.

Many women excel in important roles across various fields, including:

• Legislatures
• Cabinets
• Bureaucracy
• Diplomacy
• Journalism
• Legal profession
• Fine arts
• Academics
• Scientific research

This demonstrates the potential of women’s capabilities, but it does not reflect the opportunities available to them, as their share of these positions remains very limited.

Views on Women's Rights

There are currently two main perspectives on women's rights:

• First view : Men and women are equally capable and should be governed by the same laws.
• Second view : Women are different from men in biological, cultural, and social aspects and should have equal opportunities to develop their unique abilities along with equal rights.

According to the second view:

• Women could be exempt from dangerous jobs such as underground mining and night shifts.
• Women should receive maternity leave and related benefits.
• There should be arrangements for child maintenance and custody after divorce.
• To address under-representation, there should be reservations for women in:
  • Higher education
  • Job appointments
  • Seats in legislatures
• Women should also benefit from tax concessions to encourage them to seek additional income.

This perspective is considered more reasonable and is widely supported.

Global Focus on Gender Justice

Empowerment Progress

The Human Development Report of 1995, published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), brought attention to worldwide concerns regarding gender justice. This report introduced the gender-related development index (GDI), assessing 130 countries out of a total of 174. Additionally, it estimated the gender empowerment measure (GEM), which evaluates the participation of women in a country’s economic and political spheres.

• Countries such as Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark scored highest on both the GDI and GEM, indicating minimal gender bias in their development.
• On the other hand, the most gender-biased societies, scoring below 0.3 out of a maximum of 1.00, are mainly found in Africa and Islamic nations.
• India’s GDI ranking among the 130 countries requires verification for accuracy.

Understanding Gender Equality

The latest report defines gender equality as:

• The pursuit of gender equality is not merely a technical goal; it is a political process.
• This transformation necessitates a shift in mindset away from traditional gender stereotypes, recognizing all individuals as essential agents of change.

Significantly, the report observes no correlation between gender bias and a country’s economic development. For example, Cuba, despite its lower economic status, ranks 72 on the Human Development Index (out of 174 countries), but 47 on the GDI and 16 on the GEM (out of 130 countries). The report commends China and Cuba for their support of women, highlighting their efforts to promote gender equality.

Countries Implementing Socialist Models

Empowered Education

Countries that have embraced socialist models have made social and political efforts to achieve rapid and equitable advancements in education and health for both women and men. Their goal is to bring about social changes that expand opportunities for women.

Observations on GDI and GEM

Interestingly, there is often no significant correlation between the Gender Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) in many instances. This suggests that while women's healthcare and education have received adequate attention, they still lack sufficient power. A clear example can be seen in the "economic tigers" of East Asia, such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Despite notable improvements in women's development, they have not attained a fair share of economic and political influence in a society predominantly controlled by men.

The Feminist Perspective on Justice

In conclusion, the feminist perspective on justice emphasizes the urgent necessity for the comprehensive development of women, which encompasses:

• Improvement of their health
• Enhancement of their education
• Sufficient access to economic and political power