Analogies Chapter Notes | Language Arts for Grade 12 PDF Download

What is Analogy?

In its most frequent application, analogy involves comparing entities based on their shared similarities. For instance, a comparison can be drawn between the seasons of the year and the phases of life. In William Shakespeare's "All the World's a Stage," life is likened to a theatrical performance, where individuals take on different roles across seven distinct stages. These stages, beginning with infancy and concluding with second childhood, illustrate the journey of a man's life from birth to death. To understand word analogies, students must first understand what is an analogy. 

An analogy represents a likeness between words that fosters a deeper connection in comprehension. Expressed differently, analogies link and contrast two distinct concepts. Word analogies function similarly by highlighting the relationships between two opposing words.

Definition of Analogy?

• As per the Cambridge Dictionary, “Analogy refers to a comparison between entities that share similar characteristics, frequently employed to clarify a concept or principle. For instance, he used an analogy comparing the brain to an expansive computer.”
  • It is pronounced as /əˈnæl.ə.dʒi/ us  /əˈnæl.ə.dʒi/
• According to the Oxford Dictionary, “Analogy is the act of comparing the attributes or traits of two distinct things to highlight their commonalities. For example, he described how the mind lacks physical shape and is unseen, suggesting a helpful analogy of the mind resembling the sky.”
  • It is pronounced as /əˈnæl·ə·dʒi/

Types of Analogy

Based on the nature of the relationship they create between the compared elements, analogies in English can be classified into the following types:

• Part to whole: This analogy emphasizes the connection between a smaller component and the larger entity it belongs to.  For example, "The nose on her face is very chiseled."
• Cause and effect: This type illustrates the link between two ideas, where the first word indicates the cause and the second word denotes the resulting effect.  For example, "Due to heavy rain, my clothes are all wet."
• Synonyms: This analogy pairs words with comparable meanings.  For example, "I am glad that my daughter is finally happy."
• Antonyms: This type contrasts words with opposite meanings.  For example, "I feel like having cold coffee in this hot weather."
• Object to function: This analogy highlights the primary purpose of an object. For example, "Airplane is the fastest mode to travel."
• Performer to action: This type describes the action performed by a person or entity.  For example, "The doctor helps you to heal the wound."
• Object to classification: This relates an object to the category or group it falls under.  For example, "Dog is a very playful animal."
• Effort and Result: This analogy focuses on the work put in and the outcome achieved.  For example, "Study hard to pass the class with flying colors."
• Characteristic quality: This type highlights a specific attribute of an object.  For example, "This pillow is very soft. The knife is sharp."

Rules and Structure of Analogy

Here’s a detailed breakdown of the rules and structure to help students approach analogy questions effectively:

A : B :: C : ? This format denotes an analogy, where "A" and "B" form the first pair, and "C" pairs with the missing word.

• Single colon (:): signifies "is to."
• Double colon (::): signifies "as." 

Let’s explore the structure of analogy in detail:

• Target and Source: The analogy includes a target (the idea requiring explanation) and a source (a well-known concept for comparison).
• Relationship: The essence lies in recognizing the link between the target and source, often framed as "A is to B as C is to D."
• Colon Notation: Analogies may use a single colon (:) to mean "is to" and a double colon (::) to mean "as."

For example,

• Target: Memory
• Source: Love
• Analogy: Memory is to love what the saucer is to the cup.

Here are some guidelines for crafting a strong analogy:

• Clarity: The link between target and source should be straightforward and comprehensible.
• Familiarity: Use sources familiar to the audience to enhance relatability.
• Concrete Examples: Opt for specific examples rather than abstract notions to reduce confusion.
• Purpose: Clearly define whether the analogy aims to explain, illustrate, or persuade.
• Visuals: Incorporate visuals to boost the analogy’s effectiveness.
• Context: Ensure the analogy fits the context and setting.

Special Cases and Exceptions of Analogy in English

Analogies in English are comparisons that underscore similarities between two entities or ideas, primarily to elucidate or simplify complex concepts. However, they come with special cases and exceptions, such as when they are weak, excessively general, or misused. Let’s examine some of these exceptions and special cases for clearer understanding.

• Weak Analogies: 
  • ​Also termed false analogies, these rely on comparing two items with insufficient relevant similarities, resulting in a weak connection. 
  • For example, comparing apples and oranges—both fruits, yet differing in taste, texture, and nutritional content.
• Overly Broad Analogies:
  • ​These analogies make comparisons so vague that they ignore key differences between the items. 
  • For example, "Life is like a box of chocolates" is broad and lacks specific insight into life’s complexities.
• Misapplied Analogies: 
  • ​When analogies are used in contexts where the similarities are irrelevant or unfounded, they are considered misused.
  • For example, "Dogs and cats both have fur, so they should be treated the same" overlooks significant behavioral and need-based differences.
• Analogies in Legal Reasoning: 
  • ​In legal contexts, analogies draw parallels between current cases and prior precedents. Their accuracy is critical, as misapplication can lead to incorrect rulings. 
  • For example, the US Supreme Court employed analogy in the 1973 Roe v. Wade case, linking it to earlier privacy cases like Griswold v. Connecticut to extend privacy rights to abortion.
• Proportional vs. Non-Proportional Analogies: 
  • ​Proportional analogies, such as "A is to B as C is to D," show a consistent relationship between pairs. Non-proportional analogies lack this symmetry. 
  • For example, "Cat is to kitten as dog is to puppy" is proportional, linking adults to their young, while "Foot is to leg" is non-proportional, reflecting a part-to-whole relationship.
• Analogies in Literature: 
  • ​When analogies are used to create vivid imagery, evoke emotions, or illustrate "The human heart is like a pump." complex concepts in literature, it is called analogies in literature. However, they should not be used solely for decoration or to avoid providing a concrete explanation. They can be figurative (comparing unrelated things) or literal (comparing similar things). 
  • For example, "She is as cold as ice” is a figurative analogy. However, "The human heart is like a pump” is an example of literal analogy.
• Analogies and Conceptual Metaphors: 
  • ​In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphors are closely tied to analogies, often built on analogical foundations.
  •  For example, "The brain is like a computer" is an analogy, while "Life is a journey" is a conceptual metaphor.

Preparation Tips to Master Analogy in English Grammar

Students can excel in English analogies by grasping word relationships, practicing consistently, and broadening their vocabulary. Familiarity with analogy types—such as synonyms, antonyms, part-whole, and cause-effect—is essential, as is adopting effective problem-solving techniques.

Let’s delve into these preparation tips and strategies in detail:

• Understand the relationship: Grasping the connection between the first pair of words is key to solving analogies. Familiarize yourself with various analogy types (as outlined above), then frame the analogy as a sentence to clarify the link.
• Practice regularly: Frequent practice helps identify patterns and relationships, improving analogy skills. Use diverse questions across analogy types to build comprehensive understanding.
• Expand your vocabulary: A rich vocabulary aids in discerning word nuances and relationships. Read extensively to see how words function in various contexts.
• Use elimination strategies: Rule out options lacking a similar relationship to the original pair. If unsure of a word’s meaning, consider its alternate definitions. When stuck, eliminate the least likely answers and make an informed guess.
• Time management: Practice solving analogy questions within set time limits to enhance efficiency and performance in timed exams.

How to Identify Analogy in a Sentence?

While practice and reading can help students master the concept of analogy, here are several methods to spot an analogy within a sentence.

• Look for a Comparison: Analogies always entail comparing two entities, often those not directly related. This comparison may be explicit (using terms like "like" or "as") or implicit, where the connection is hinted at rather than stated.
• Identify the "Target" and "Source": The target is typically the concept or idea being elucidated or clarified in the sentence. The source is the familiar entity used to shed light on the target.
• Look for Shared Characteristics: Analogies function by highlighting common traits or features between the target and source. This similarity aids the reader in grasping the target more readily through its relation to the source.
• Consider the Purpose: Analogies serve to simplify complex information and enhance comprehension. They can also be used to clarify relationships or support conclusions.

Analogy in Spoken and Written English

Analogies enhance communication and understanding in both spoken and written English.

• Analogies in Spoken English
  • Figurative Language: According to MasterClass, analogies are frequently employed in casual conversations to add vividness and make remarks more memorable.
  • Clarification: Students can utilize analogies to break down challenging concepts, improving the listener’s grasp of the subject.
  • Shared Abstraction: Grammarly notes that analogies can explain abstract ideas using concrete examples. For instance, "Life is like a box of chocolates," or "That film was a roller coaster ride of emotions" are common spoken analogies.
• Analogies in Written English
  • Explanation and Elaboration: Study.com states that analogies are a frequent tool in writing to clarify intricate ideas or concepts.
  • Persuasion: Grammarly suggests that writers can leverage analogies to bolster arguments and increase their persuasive impact.
  • Enrichment: According to Study.com, analogies can enhance writing with richness and imagery.
    • Examples: In literature, an analogy might compare the phases of life to the seasons.

Common Grammar Errors to Avoid in Analogy

Here’s a detailed list of common analogy errors:

1. False Analogy: This occurs when two largely dissimilar things are compared, relying on superficial likeness. For example, likening the brain to a computer and assuming that, since computers store data in bits, human thoughts are also composed of discrete bits. This analogy is flawed and fails to reflect the complexity of human cognition, resulting in an incorrect inference.
2. Weak Analogy: A weak analogy arises when two entities with insufficient similarity are compared, lacking the strength to support its conclusion. For example, "A dog acts the same way as a cat because they are both mammals" is weak, as the distinct behaviors, personalities, and habits of cats and dogs invalidate the comparison despite their shared mammalian nature.
3. Overgeneralization: This happens when a broad conclusion is drawn from a limited or faulty analogy and extended to all future scenarios. For instance, after failing a test, someone might overgeneralize and believe, "I'm always going to fail."
4. Misunderstanding the Scope of an Analogy: This error occurs when an analogy is given more relevance than warranted, leading to misinterpretation and flawed reasoning. For example, comparing the immune system to a police force can be useful, but oversimplifying it may cause misunderstandings.
5. Ignoring Relevant Differences: This involves focusing only on similarities while overlooking critical differences between the compared items. For example, if surgeons use X-rays as guidance, students might argue they should use books during exams. This equates textbooks to medical tools, ignoring that exams test knowledge while the others aid execution.
6. Using Outdated or Inaccurate Analogies: This entails using analogies that have become irrelevant or incorrect due to shifts in knowledge or circumstances.