Latest Developments in Vaccine Technology | Science & Technology for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

Vaccine technology has undergone transformative advancements, particularly with mRNA and intranasal vaccines, revolutionizing disease prevention. mRNA vaccines, leveraging genetic instructions to trigger immune responses, gained prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Intranasal vaccines, administered through the nasal route, offer needle-free alternatives with unique immunological benefits. These innovations address global health challenges, including infectious diseases and pandemics, making them critical for India’s public health strategy and UPSC’s Science and Technology syllabus. As of August 2025, developments in these areas reflect cutting-edge science with policy, ethical, and accessibility implications.

mRNA Vaccine Technology

Fundamentals of mRNA Vaccines

• Mechanism: mRNA vaccines deliver synthetic messenger RNA encoding a target antigen (e.g., viral spike protein) into cells. The cells produce the antigen, triggering an immune response (B and T cell activation) without causing disease.

• Components:

  • mRNA strand encoding the antigen.

  • Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for delivery and stability.

  • Stabilizing agents to maintain mRNA integrity.

• Advantages:

  • Rapid development: mRNA sequences can be designed quickly using genomic data.

  • High efficacy: Potent immune responses, as seen in COVID-19 vaccines (e.g., Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna).

  • No live virus: Reduced risk of infection during production.

• Limitations:

  • Storage challenges: Ultra-cold chain requirements (though mitigated by newer formulations).

  • Cost: High production costs limit accessibility in low-income settings.

  • Potential off-target immune responses requiring monitoring.

Recent Developments (as of 2025)

• Broader Applications:

  • HIV Vaccines: mRNA vaccines encoding HIV envelope trimer proteins show potent B and T cell responses, with 80% of trial participants developing neutralizing antibodies.

  • Cancer Vaccines: Personalized mRNA vaccines target tumor-specific antigens, with ongoing trials for melanoma and pancreatic cancer showing promise.

  • Universal Influenza Vaccines: mRNA platforms target conserved flu antigens for broader protection against multiple strains.

• Technological Advancements:

  • Self-Amplifying mRNA (sa-mRNA): Incorporates replicase genes to amplify mRNA within cells, requiring lower doses (e.g., trials for Zika and rabies vaccines).

  • Thermostable Formulations: Advances in LNPs reduce cold chain dependency, with stable mRNA vaccines at 2–8°C for months, enhancing access in resource-limited settings.

  • Combination Vaccines: mRNA vaccines combining antigens for multiple diseases (e.g., COVID-19 and flu) in single doses to improve compliance.

• Challenges:

  • Reports on X suggest skepticism about mRNA vaccine efficacy against upper respiratory infections, citing funding shifts away from mRNA platforms.

  • Long-term safety data still under evaluation, particularly for rare side effects like myocarditis.

Global and Indian Context

• Global Leaders: USA (Moderna, Pfizer), Germany (BioNTech), and China lead mRNA research. Collaborative efforts with WHO aim to democratize technology via mRNA hubs in Africa and Asia.

• India’s Progress:

  • Gennova Biopharmaceuticals: Developed India’s first mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (Gemcovac-19), approved in 2022, with thermostable properties for rural distribution.

  • DBT Support: Department of Biotechnology funds mRNA research for dengue and tuberculosis vaccines.

  • Challenges: Limited manufacturing infrastructure and dependence on imported LNPs.

Intranasal Vaccine Technology

Fundamentals of Intranasal Vaccines

• Mechanism: Delivered via nasal spray, these vaccines stimulate mucosal immunity (IgA antibodies) in the respiratory tract, the primary entry point for many pathogens, alongside systemic immunity (IgG).

• Types:

  • Live-attenuated: Weakened pathogens (e.g., FluMist for influenza).

  • Protein-based: Use recombinant antigens.

  • Viral vector-based: Use adenoviruses to deliver antigens.

  • mRNA-based: Emerging nasal mRNA vaccines for enhanced mucosal response.

• Advantages:

  • Needle-free: Improves patient compliance, especially in children.

  • Mucosal immunity: Blocks pathogens at entry, reducing transmission.

  • Ease of administration: Suitable for mass vaccination campaigns.

• Limitations:

  • Complex delivery systems: Nasal sprays require precise formulations.

  • Variable efficacy: Mucosal immune responses can be inconsistent.

  • Regulatory hurdles: Limited precedents for approval.

Recent Developments (as of 2025)

• COVID-19 Intranasal Vaccines:

  • McMaster University: Phase-2 trials for an inhaled COVID-19 vaccine, funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, focusing on mucosal immunity.

  • Bharat Biotech (India): BBV154, an adenovirus-vectored intranasal COVID-19 vaccine, completed trials, showing robust mucosal and systemic responses.

• Other Applications:

  • Influenza: Next-generation intranasal flu vaccines target broader strains, with trials exploring mRNA-based nasal formulations.

  • RSV and Other Respiratory Viruses: Intranasal vaccines in development for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and parainfluenza, leveraging mucosal immunity.

• Technological Advancements:

  • Nasal Delivery Systems: Improved spray devices ensure consistent antigen delivery to nasal mucosa.

  • mRNA Intranasal Vaccines: Early trials combine mRNA with adjuvants to enhance mucosal immunity, overcoming challenges of mRNA stability in nasal environments.

  • Oral-Nasal Delivery: Research on mRNA vaccines delivered via milk bubbles (tested in mice) suggests potential for non-invasive vaccination.

• Challenges:

  • Ensuring consistent mucosal immune responses across diverse populations.

  • Scaling production for nasal delivery systems in low-resource settings.

Global and Indian Context

• Global Leaders: USA, Canada, and India lead intranasal vaccine research. WHO supports trials in developing nations to address respiratory diseases.

• India’s Progress:

  • Bharat Biotech: BBV154 marks India’s entry into intranasal vaccines, with potential for export to Global South countries.

  • Serum Institute of India: Exploring intranasal formulations for measles and other vaccines.

  • Challenges: Regulatory delays and public skepticism about needle-free vaccines’ efficacy.

Ethical and Social Implications

• Equity and Access:

  • High costs of mRNA vaccines limit access in low-income countries. India’s thermostable formulations aim to bridge this gap.

  • Intranasal vaccines, being needle-free, could improve vaccination rates in rural areas but require affordable production.

• Public Perception:

  • X posts indicate mixed sentiments, with some praising mRNA advances (e.g., HIV vaccine trials) and others questioning efficacy.

  • Misinformation about mRNA vaccines (e.g., claims of genetic alteration) necessitates public education.

• Ethical Concerns:

  • Informed consent for novel vaccines, especially in vulnerable populations.

  • Balancing rapid deployment with long-term safety monitoring.

Regulatory Frameworks

• Global Regulations:

  • WHO: Provides guidelines for mRNA and intranasal vaccine trials, emphasizing safety and efficacy.

  • FDA/EMA: Rigorous clinical trial phases for mRNA vaccines; intranasal vaccines face additional scrutiny for mucosal delivery.

• India’s Regulatory Framework:

  • CDSCO: Oversees vaccine approvals under the New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019.

  • DBT Guidelines: Ensure biosafety for mRNA and viral vector vaccines.

  • Challenges: Streamlining approvals for novel platforms while addressing public concerns about GMOs or genetic technologies.

• Recent Policy Shifts: Reports on X suggest potential funding cuts for mRNA vaccines in some regions due to perceived inefficacy against respiratory infections, though this is inconclusive.

India’s Role and Opportunities

• Research and Development:

  • Institutions like IISc, CCMB, and THSTI contribute to mRNA and intranasal vaccine research.

  • Public-private partnerships (e.g., Gennova, Bharat Biotech) drive innovation.

• Government Initiatives:

  • National Biotechnology Development Strategy (2021–2025): Prioritizes vaccine technology for self-reliance.

  • Mission COVID Suraksha: Accelerates indigenous vaccine development, including mRNA and intranasal platforms.

• Opportunities:

  • Addressing tropical diseases (e.g., dengue, TB) with mRNA and intranasal vaccines.

  • Export potential for affordable vaccines to Global South.

• Challenges:

  • Scaling manufacturing for LNPs and nasal delivery systems.

  • Public trust and regulatory harmonization with global standards.

Future Trends

• mRNA Vaccines:

  • Integration with AI for rapid antigen design.

  • Development of pan-coronavirus vaccines for future pandemics.

  • Focus on low-cost, thermostable formulations for global access.

• Intranasal Vaccines:

  • Expansion to non-respiratory diseases (e.g., HPV, hepatitis).

  • Combination nasal vaccines for multiple pathogens.

• Global Collaboration: mRNA technology transfer hubs in India and Africa to enhance local production.

• Challenges Ahead: Addressing misinformation, ensuring equitable access, and mitigating rare side effects.

mRNA and intranasal vaccines represent a paradigm shift in vaccine technology, offering rapid, effective, and accessible solutions for global health challenges. India’s advancements in these areas, supported by DBT and industry, position it as a key player. However, ethical, regulatory, and accessibility challenges must be addressed to maximize impact.