Lexicon Summary: Ethics | UPSC Mains: Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude PDF Download

Ethics and Human Interface

After studying this unit, you will gain an understanding of the following aspects:

• The concept of ethics and its scope.
• The essence, determinants, and consequences of ethics in human actions.
• The various dimensions of ethics.
• The role of ethics in private and public relationships.
• Human values as learned from the lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers, and administrators.
• The influence of family, society, and educational institutions in instilling values.
• Ethics refers to the systematic examination of human actions to determine their rightness or wrongness, with the aim of achieving ultimate happiness. It involves a careful consideration of what is good or bad in human behavior, for which individuals bear personal responsibility. In simpler terms, ethics is a set of standards that a society establishes for itself to guide its behavior, choices, and actions.
• In the context of public administration, ethics is crucial as it encourages public administrators to reflect on and question their actions in order to act responsibly.

Scope of Ethics

Ethics pertains to voluntary actions. It is important to distinguish between human actions and actions of humans:

• Human actions are performed consciously and intentionally, with the goal of achieving something.
• Actions of humans may occur without will or intent, such as sleeping or walking. The key difference lies in the intention behind these actions. Ethics only addresses human actions.

What Ethics is Not?

• Ethics is not the same as morality. Morality can involve personal commitments that may not be accepted by others, while ethics requires the involvement of others for self-realization.
• Ethics is not based on religion. Although many religions promote high ethical standards, ethics applies universally, regardless of religious belief.
• Ethics is not simply following the law. Legally, a person is guilty for violating another's rights, but in ethics, one is guilty even for considering such actions, as noted by Immanuel Kant. While good laws often reflect ethical standards, laws can sometimes differ from what is ethical.
• Ethics is not about accepting cultural norms. Some cultures may uphold strong ethical values, while others may overlook certain ethical issues. The saying, “When in Rome, do as the Romans do,” is not a sufficient ethical guideline.

Why be Moral?

Many individuals question the importance of being moral and engaging in the moral aspects of life. Why should one adopt a moral perspective?

• Every person has an inherent desire for goodness, known as summum bonum. Ethical principles and moral practices assist individuals in achieving what is best for themselves.
• Morality is more about one's inner self than merely following customs or rules. It is a fundamental desire ingrained in human nature.
• Humans possess the rational capacity to recognize basic principles of logic and morality, which involves both subjective and objective aspects of actions. This awareness encourages individuals to base their decisions on shared principles.
• For society to function effectively, certain rules and regulations are essential. A satisfactory life within groups cannot be attained without them, as neither a “state of nature” nor a “totalitarian state” is feasible.
• Institutions aimed at improving human life require moral principles for their effective operation. This raises questions about individual freedom and the extent to which society can impose demands.
• Morality is akin to nutrition; most people lack formal education in nutrition yet possess some understanding of it. Just as we may make mistakes in our diets, our moral lives seek to nourish our moral health.
• The goal of morality is to enhance our lives and promote better living. It offers a shared perspective for agreement on collective actions, striving for an objective evaluation beyond personal preferences.

Branches of Ethics

Ethics is a vast field with various branches, each focusing on different aspects of moral philosophy. The four main branches of ethics are:

• Descriptive Ethics
• Normative Ethics
• Meta-Ethics
• Applied Ethics

1. Descriptive Ethics

Descriptive ethics is concerned with understanding and documenting what people believe about morality. It involves studying real-life situations to grasp how different communities and cultures perceive and practice ethics. This branch delves into the history and evolution of ethical beliefs, examining various customs and norms, such as family structures, marriage practices, and societal rules.

• Descriptive ethics looks at the ethical ideals that individuals hold and the actions that society considers wrong.
• It aims to uncover the underlying beliefs people have about values, determining what is seen as right or wrong within a particular context.
• The branch also investigates the character traits that are associated with being virtuous, such as honesty, kindness, and integrity.
• Importantly, descriptive ethics takes a value-free approach, focusing on actual moral beliefs and practices rather than imposing judgments or opinions.

2. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics is focused on establishing moral standards that guide behaviour, aiming to determine what is right and wrong. It seeks to provide clear guidelines for acceptable conduct and is often referred to as prescriptive ethics because it suggests how people ought to behave.

• This branch evaluates the morality of actions and proposes consequences for those who deviate from established moral principles.
• Normative ethics develops theories based on specific norms to address complex moral dilemmas and provide a framework for ethical decision-making.

Theories within normative ethics include:

• Aristotle's virtue ethics, which emphasizes the importance of developing virtuous character traits.
• Kant's deontological ethics, which focuses on the morality of actions based on adherence to rules and duties.
• Mill's Consequentialism (Utilitarianism), which evaluates actions based on their outcomes and the overall happiness they produce.
• Bhagavad Gita's Nishkam Karmayoga, which advocates for selfless action without attachment to results.

An example of a normative principle is the Golden Rule. "We should do to others what we would want others to do to us." This principle serves as a guideline for evaluating the morality of actions. For instance, if you would want assistance when you are hungry, you should help others in need. The Golden Rule helps establish that actions like lying, harassing, or harming others are wrong. It provides a singular standard for judging actions, whereas other normative theories may rely on multiple foundational principles or positive character traits.

3. Meta Ethics

Meta ethics explores the origins and meanings of ethical concepts. The term "meta" suggests a perspective that goes beyond, offering a broader view of ethics.
Central to Meta ethics are two key issues:

• Metaphysical issues: These concern the existence of morality independent of human beings.
• Psychological issues: These delve into the mental foundations behind our moral decisions and behaviors.

In simpler terms, Meta ethics investigates the significance of ethical terms and theories. It evaluates the legitimacy of theories proposed in Normative Ethics, which focuses on determining right from wrong. Moral concepts like right, wrong, good, and bad are used to assess human actions. These concepts are tools for moral evaluation. Meta ethics looks into the meaning of moral language, the nature of moral facts, and ethical ideas.
It raises questions such as:

• What do moral terms or judgments signify?
• What is the essence of moral judgments?
• How can moral judgments be validated?

4. Applied Ethics

Applied ethics focuses on specific and often contentious moral issues like abortion, animal rights, and euthanasia. It applies moral principles to address dilemmas arising from new lifestyles and practices. Applied ethics poses questions such as:

• Is abortion morally acceptable?
• Is euthanasia morally permissible?
• Is affirmative action justified?
• What constitutes human rights, and how are they defined?
• Do animals possess rights?
• Do individuals have the right to self-determination?

For an issue to qualify as an "applied ethical issue," it must meet two criteria:

• It should be controversial, with substantial support and opposition from different groups.
• It must be a clear moral issue, rather than just a social debate.

Factors Influencing Ethical Behavior

Ethical behavior and decisions are influenced by three main factors:

• Individual Personality Traits: These include an individual's values, upbringing, education, religious beliefs, and experiences.
• Culture: The culture or country an individual belongs to plays a significant role in shaping their ethical behavior.
• Organization or Industry: The prevailing ethics of the organization or industry where an individual works can greatly impact their ethical decisions.

Factors Determining Ethics in Governance

The levels of ethics in governance are influenced by various contexts, including:

• Social Context
• Economic Context
• Political Context
• Cultural Context
• Legal-Judicial Context
• Historical Context

These factors shape the ethical standards in public administrative systems. Ethics, whether in society or within a social sub-system, evolves over time and is influenced by different environmental factors such as historical, socio-cultural, legal-judicial, political, and economic aspects.

• Values are fundamental principles or qualities that guide the judgment and behavior of individuals or groups. They serve as a moral compass, helping people stay grounded in their principles during challenging times. Values are derived from our innermost selves and guide our actions, even when we are not being observed. They are concerned with the character and conduct of individuals and evaluate their actions based on rightness or wrongness.
• There is also a perspective that values are shaped by the environment through continuous learning and the behavior of others, particularly those perceived as superior. While the environment, society, and family influence the values individuals internalize, the source of values is intrinsic, guiding choices in learning from the environment. Personal values vary based on awareness of this inner source and the extent of cultural and other pressures. Therefore, both the inner source and cultural environment are essential for value formation.

Intrinsic Values vs. Extrinsic Values

• Values play a crucial role in shaping our individuality and guiding our actions. They can be classified based on their significance into intrinsic and extrinsic values.
• Intrinsic values are those that are valuable in themselves, regardless of any external factors. They are ends in themselves and are appreciated for their inherent qualities. Examples of intrinsic values include: Truth, Beauty, Goodness, Temperance, and Courage. These values hold their worth even when considered in isolation. While many perceive intrinsic values as absolute, different philosophical perspectives may interpret them differently.
• On the other hand, extrinsic values are instrumental in nature and serve as means to achieve other values. They derive their worth from something outside themselves. For instance, a pair of spectacles is only useful if there are eyes to see through them. Extrinsic values include wealth, fame, and physical fitness, which gain their significance from their role in achieving other ends.
• It is important to note that the terms extrinsic and intrinsic are relative and not always fixed. What one person values for its own sake, another may perceive as a means to an end.

Types of Values

• Positive Values and Negative Values
• Productive Values and Unproductive Values
• Permanent Values and Transient Values

Generally, Intrinsic Values are considered more important than Extrinsic Values. Positive Values are favoured over Negative Values. The source of values lies within the human mind, which reacts to its environment. The human mind has three functions:

• Thinking
• Feeling
• Willing

The corresponding values are:

• Intellectual Values (Truth)
• Aesthetic Values (Beauty)
• Moral Values (Goodness)

Truth, Beauty, and Good are regarded as Universal Values.

Understanding Morality and Ethics

• Morality involves questions about what is right and wrong and how individuals should behave.
• It pertains to standards of conduct that are considered right or proper by society.
• Morality is based on personal conscience rather than legal obligations.

Distinguishing Between Ethics and Morality

• While ethics and morality may appear similar at first glance, there is a subtle distinction between the two.
• Ethics refers to the standards that a society or group strives to uphold.
• Morality goes deeper into the concepts of right and wrong, encompassing personal beliefs and spiritual values.
• Morals are the principles that shape an individual's character.
• Ethics pertains to the social system in which those morals are applied.

Ethics, Values, and Morals

• Ethics refers to the guidelines or principles that members of a profession or group follow to determine the best course of action in a particular situation. These guidelines are based on logical and rational thinking, making ethics a cognitive process.
• Values are the concepts or ideas that we consider important or worthy. When we value something, we hold it in high regard and believe it has significance. Values often have an emotional component and typically include goals we aspire to, such as equality and social justice.
• Morals generally reflect a broader societal or cultural code of conduct that individuals adhere to. Morals play a crucial role in fostering and maintaining relationships with others.

Value System

• Values play a crucial role in shaping our self-perception and guiding our actions.
• When values are considered together, they form what is called a 'value system.'
• A 'value system' is a stable and enduring set of beliefs about the behaviours or goals that are important to us.
• Within this system, the significance of different values is interconnected.
• For example, an individual may prioritize 'honesty' over 'success.'

Ethics in Public Administration

• Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator must follow the laws and guidelines that govern policies and decisions.
• Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator should take responsibility for their actions and be accountable to higher authorities and the public.
• Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator should be dedicated to their duties and perform tasks with involvement and skill, viewing work as a chance to serve society.
• Maxim of Excellence: An administrator must uphold high standards in decisions and actions, without compromising quality for convenience.
• Maxim of Fusion: An administrator should aim to integrate individual, organizational, and social goals, letting ethics guide decisions in case of conflicts.
• Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator must respond effectively to internal and external challenges, adapting to changes while maintaining ethical standards.
• Maxim of Utilitarianism: Decisions should aim for the greatest good for the largest number of people.
• Maxim of Compassion: An administrator should show compassion for vulnerable groups and avoid favouring the strong over the weak.
• Maxim of National Interest: Consider the impact of actions on the nation’s strength and reputation to enhance service quality and outcomes.
• Maxim of Justice: Policy-makers must respect equality, fairness, and objectivity, avoiding special treatment based on status or wealth.
• Maxim of Transparency: Decisions should be made transparently so that those affected understand the reasoning behind them.
• Maxim of Integrity: An administrator must act with honesty and avoid using power for personal gain.

Public Relations

Public Relations has become a crucial function that impacts management decisions and shapes public opinion in both public and private organizations. Today, it is essential for any organization. The reasons for its significance include the following:

Key Reasons for Importance

• Recognition of the right to express opinions and freedom of information.
• Advances in telecommunication and transport.
• Opening up of traditionally closed societies and increasing globalization.
• Governments using Public Relations practices to maintain power and support development initiatives.
• Growth in business, amalgamations, collaborations, operating with subsidiaries, spreading across national boundaries and in different cultures.

Ethics in Public Relations

Public Relations (PR) is built on the foundation of long-term responsibility, aiming to persuade and foster mutual understanding through the willing acceptance of attitudes and ideas. For this to be successful, it is crucial that the fundamental policy is ethical and the methods used are truthful. In PR, the ends can never justify the means if those means are false, harmful, or questionable.

• However, distinguishing between what is ethical and unethical can be difficult. Ethics is often best understood as a choice between right and wrong based on one's conscience. When actions cause mental dissonance, they lead to feelings of guilt and dishonesty. 
• Therefore, dishonest communication is counterproductive to building relationships. The public should not be underestimated, as Abraham Lincoln wisely noted, "you can fool some people all the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all the people all the time."

Unethical actions in Public Relations can include:

• Suppressing unfavorable news,
• Misrepresenting facts,
• Postponing support for a cause while actually serving another interest,
• Promising results that cannot be delivered,
• Using undesirable methods to pressure editors into publishing publicity material.

As public awareness and education increase, consumers are becoming more aware of their rights. This may require Public Relations professionals to engage with pressure groups such as trade unions, consumer protection organizations, and environmental activists. Therefore, it is essential for PR practitioners to be self-regulating, ethical, and mindful of the legal aspects of communication.

Values in Public Relationships

Clearly expressing the ethics and values that underpin public service is of utmost importance. This not only helps public officials and the public align on the principles and standards that should be upheld but also assists public officials in recognizing the ethical dilemmas involved in delivering effective public services. A prime example of the significance of these ethical principles is the "Seven Principles of Public Life" set forth by the Nolan Committee in the United Kingdom. These principles are:

• Selflessness: Public officials should prioritize the public interest above personal gain when making decisions.
• Integrity: Public officials must steer clear of financial or other commitments to external individuals or organizations that could sway their official responsibilities.
• Objectivity: Officials should base their decisions on merit when carrying out public tasks, such as making appointments or awarding contracts.
• Accountability: Public officials are answerable for their decisions and should be open to scrutiny relevant to their positions.
• Openness: Public officials ought to be as transparent as possible about their decisions and actions, providing explanations unless it is against the public interest.
• Honesty: Public officials must disclose any private interests linked to their public roles and resolve conflicts in a manner that safeguards the public interest.
• Leadership: Public officials should embody and promote these principles through their leadership.
• Values are fundamental in shaping every significant decision in human interactions. They bridge personal beliefs, motivations, and actions, and are crucial for grasping social and political dynamics. 
• An essential idea is that values, along with their practical consequences, are as vital for understanding humanity and society as basic physical needs. Furthermore, they play a pivotal role in the betterment of both individuals and society.
• The pervasive occurrence of violence, war, hatred, and crime throughout history might imply that human values are not universal. However, these values originate from the earliest civilizations and religions and have persisted through time and across cultures. 
• In this regard, they are universal, and this universality strengthens as human beings and societies progress, with these values becoming more firmly rooted, bolstered by international laws and practices.

What do Human Values consist of?

• Human values can be understood in various ways, ranging from practical instances to abstract moral principles. However, genuine human values are not theoretical constructs created by academics or religious figures; they are concepts grounded in everyday life, along with their rationales. 
• Being human, values are not rigid directives imposed from above; rather, they pertain to diverse cultures, individual peculiarities, and specific contexts, evolving and articulating human objectives.

Human Values

Basic human values are fundamental principles that guide our behavior and interactions with others. These values are widely accepted and relevant to everyone, regardless of their background or beliefs. In this article, we will explore some of the basic human values, including love-caring, peace, and justice.

Basic Human Values

• Love-Caring
• Peace
• Justice

Truth

• Truth is a fundamental value in human nature, existing independently of individual desires or opinions.
• Most people dislike being called a liar, even those who lie, highlighting the importance of truth.
• Maintaining a lie is often more complicated than upholding the truth, as one lie leads to another, creating a tangled web.

Love-Caring

• Love should be understood broadly as care or concern for others and the environment.
• It represents a fundamental human value related to consideration and respect for others.
• Love is defined as unselfish care and concern for the well-being of others and the world at large.
• The less selfish love is, the more it enhances life.
• Love encompasses concepts like altruism, understanding, and forgiveness.

Peace

• Peace is a universally acknowledged positive value signifying a state of harmony and a balanced yet dynamic mental condition.
• Peace in an individual's life, society, and globally arises from the harmonious interaction of all positive values, including truth, caring, and justice.
• Peace becomes tangible when experienced as peace of mind, mutual respect, and the enjoyment of friendliness and tolerance.
• Peace of mind is personal, while social peace results from positive, non-violent, and constructive actions.

Justice

• Justice has long been upheld as one of the highest human values, with philosophers like Socrates and Plato considering it paramount.
• Justice revolves around fairness and the principle that every individual is equal before the law.
• Justice aims to resolve conflicts and is guided by the principles of care and nonviolence, using the minimum force necessary.
• The pursuit of social justice for the common good has deep historical roots in all human societies.
• The classical Greek understanding of justice laid the groundwork for concepts that evolved into modern human rights.
• Justice has significant political implications, especially in the quest for equality in democratic systems.

Human Values - Lessons from Lives of Great Leaders, Administrators & Reformers

This section provides examples of prominent leaders, administrators, and reformers, emphasizing the fundamental human values they demonstrated and practiced in both their personal and public lives.

Understanding Leaders and Administrators

Administration involves collaborating with others to achieve specific goals efficiently, and an administrator is responsible for overseeing this process. Key aspects of administration include:

• Planning
• Organising
• Leading
• Controlling

Management also encompasses tasks such as:

• Coordinating
• Directing
• Defining objectives
• Supporting others' work
• Evaluating performance

While administration and management share similarities, leadership involves higher-level skills, decision-making, and inspiring change.

Administrators are appointed and hold formal authority, enabling them to reward or punish individuals. Their influence stems from their position. In contrast, leaders can be appointed or emerge organically within a group, motivating others to exceed expectations without relying solely on authority. Essentially, administrators ensure tasks are completed, while leaders inspire a desire to achieve.

Key distinctions between leaders and administrators include:

• Leaders create new frameworks, whereas administrators operate within existing structures.
• Administrators focus on executing policies, while leaders formulate them.
• Administrators prioritize doing things correctly, while leaders emphasize doing the right things.

A reformer seeks to enhance society by advocating for changes in areas such as politics, social customs, and religion.

Different Types of Reformers

• A social reformer addresses social issues like child marriage and untouchability. Prominent figures include Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Raja Rammohan Roy, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, who have made significant contributions to society through their ideas and efforts.
• A political reformer commits to improving governmental practices, focusing on issues such as corruption, equality, and transparency.
• A religious reformer aims to realign a religion with its original principles and objectives, believing that it has deviated from its intended message.

Leader, Administrator and Reformer: Common Values

Leaders, administrators, and reformers may require different skills and traits, but they all share core values that they uphold even in tough times. These values include a commitment to serve the people, uplift the downtrodden, and demonstrate impartiality, integrity, benevolence, and compassion.

Human Values - Lessons from the Lives of Great Leaders

Many great leaders around the world lived by fundamental human values, including Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, Vaclav Havel, Aung San Suu Kyi, and Mother Teresa. Some of these values include:

Core Human Values

• Love for Justice
• Respect for Humanity
• Dignity for All
• Loving and Caring Behaviour
• Peace Loving ( Non-Violence )
• Benevolence

Human Values - Lessons from the Lives of Great Administrators

Our generation has been fortunate to witness the efforts of some of the world's finest administrators, including Verghese Kurien, M.S. Swaminathan, Sam Pitroda, E. Sreedharan, C.D. Deshmukh, I.G. Patel, V.P. Menon, and GVG Krishnamurthy. Their work exemplifies the guidance of various professional and human values in administration.

Core Values

• Non-discrimination
• Discipline
• Civic duty
• Social Equality
• Lawfulness
• Ethical accountability
• Loyalty
• Solidarity and respect

Human Values - Lessons from the Lives of Great Reformers

In India, numerous social reformers, including Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev, Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Swami Vivekananda, challenged harmful customs and enlightened society on various social and religious issues. Their lives exemplify the following values:

• Humanism
• Reason and inquiry for seeking the truth
• Kindness and compassion
• Contentment

Inculcating Values - Role of Family

The family is the primary and most influential agent of socialization, playing a crucial role in shaping a child's development. Research indicates that many successful and well-adjusted children come from families with strong, positive relationships. Therefore, the home environment establishes the child's attitude towards others and society, fosters intellectual growth, and supports their aspirations and positive values.

Instilling Values: The Role of Society

Administrative morality is a crucial element of the overall morality within a community. According to Finer, "The ethics of every profession, upon close examination, are not much higher or lower than the general decency of the nation as a whole. Their nature is, at best, strongly influenced by the level of the surrounding and prevailing civilization."

Civic Consciousness and Government Success

The success of any government depends on civic consciousness to progress the country. This can only be achieved by:

• Reorienting our educational system
• Utilizing mass media for character-building

Promoting Civic Values

There is a strong need to foster:

• Civic consciousness
• Patriotism
• Discipline among citizens through education
• Adult education and functional literacy

This approach would result in:

• Community members working together with public service personnel
• Public service personnel striving to promote comprehensive development within the community

Instilling Values - The Role of Educational Institutions

Education serves as a means to introduce learners to a lifestyle that society considers valuable and worth maintaining. While education inherently involves sharing values, it is crucial that these transformations occur without violating the freedom and autonomy of learners.

Aims of Education

• Development of human personality
• Pursuit of knowledge
• Preservation of culture
• Development of character
• Promotion of social justice
• Encouragement of scientific temper
• Support for democracy
• Advocacy for secularism

These aims reflect different educational perspectives on what constitutes a good life. Through education, society strives to uphold and promote its cherished principles.