Q1. What is deforestation? Why is it considered harmful?
Ans: Deforestation refers to the loss of forests, often due to human activities such as clearing land for agriculture, industry, and fuel. This practice is harmful for several reasons:
- Forests provide essential resources, including paper, wood, and various spices.
- They serve as habitats for many animals and birds, offering shelter and food.
- Forests help prevent soil erosion and stabilise sand dunes.
- They are vital for maintaining ecological diversity and balanced ecosystems.
Overall, deforestation threatens the health of our planet and the survival of countless species.
Q2. Describe scientific forestry.
Ans: A system of cutting trees managed by the forest department involves the removal of old trees and the planting of new ones. Key features of scientific forestry include:
- Replacement of diverse natural forests with monoculture plantations, where a single tree species is planted in straight rows.
- Careful planning and management by forest officials, who assess the forest area and calculate the distribution of tree types.
- Development of detailed working plans for sustainable forest management.
- Establishment of an annual harvest quota, determining how much of the plantation is cut each year.
- Prompt replanting of cleared areas to maintain continuous productivity.
Q3. What were the different forest acts made by Britishers to control the forests ?
Ans: The different forest Acts made by Britishers to control the forests were :
- In 1864 the Indian Forest Act Service was established
- In 1865, the Indian Forest Act was passed
- In 1878 and 1927 the India Forest Act was amended
- The Act 1878 made three categories of forest that are Reserved Forests, Protected Forest and Village Forest.
Q4. What is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the British?
Ans:
- Shifting agriculture, also known as swidden agriculture, is a traditional farming method practiced across various regions including Asia, Africa, and South America. It goes by different local names such as ‘lading’ in South-East Asia, ‘milpa’ in Central America, ‘chitemene’ or ‘tavy’ in Africa, ‘chena’ in Sri Lanka, and various names like dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad, and kumri in different parts of India.
- In shifting cultivation, farmers clear small sections of forested land by cutting and burning vegetation in a rotational cycle. Seeds are then sown in the nutrient-rich ashes after the first monsoon rains, and crops are typically harvested by October-November.
- These cultivated plots are actively farmed for a few years before being left fallow for an extended period, usually 12 to 18 years, allowing the forest to naturally regenerate.
- Historically, shifting cultivation was criticized by the British colonial administration for its perceived detrimental impact on forests. They believed that land used for periodic cultivation could not sustain the growth of timber for railways. Additionally, the practice of burning fields posed a risk of wildfires that could destroy valuable timber resources.
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Q5. Explain why did the Dutch adopt the ‘scorched earth policy’ during the war.
Ans: The Dutch adopted a scorched earth policy in Java before the Japanese occupation for several reasons:
- To prevent the Japanese from using valuable resources, they destroyed sawmills and burned large stockpiles of teak logs.
- This strategy aimed to deny the Japanese access to timber, which was crucial for their war efforts.
- As a result, the Japanese exploited the forests recklessly, forcing local villagers to cut down trees.
- Many villagers took this opportunity to expand their agricultural land, leading to conflicts with the forest department post-war.
Q6. How did the forest rules affect cultivation?
Ans: Forest rules significantly impacted cultivation practices, particularly shifting cultivation.
- Shifting cultivation involves clearing forest areas, burning them, and planting seeds in the ashes.
- This method relies on rain for irrigation and allows the land to rest for several years.
- Colonial governments viewed this practice as harmful, complicating tax assessments.
- As a result, they imposed bans on shifting cultivation, leading to the displacement of communities.
- Many communities were forced to change their livelihoods or resist through rebellions.
Q7. Why did land under cultivation increase during colonial rule?
Ans: The increase in land under cultivation during colonial rule can be attributed to several factors:
- The British promoted the growth of cash crops such as jute, indigo, and cotton to meet economic demands.
- Food crop cultivation was encouraged to ensure food security for the population.
- Forests were viewed as unproductive, leading to significant clearing for agricultural use.
- This expansion aimed to enhance revenue and economic output for the colonial government.
Q8. What did Dietrich Brandis suggest for the improvement of forests in India?
Ans: Dietrich Brandis proposed a structured method for managing forests in India. His key recommendations included:
- Protecting forests from excessive felling and grazing.
- Establishing the Indian Forest Service in 1864.
- Formulating the Indian Forest Act of 1865 to regulate forest use.
These actions aimed to ensure sustainable forest management and conservation.
Q9. What was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute? How was this system carried out?
Ans: The Imperial Forest Research Institute, established in Dehradun in 1906, focused on teaching scientific forestry. This system involved:
- Replacing diverse natural forests with monoculture plantations of a single tree species.
- Training forest officials to manage these plantations.
- Carefully planning cutting and replanting cycles.
- Assessing the area to be harvested annually and ensuring it was replanted.
This approach aimed to optimise timber production while maintaining forest health.
Q10. Differentiate between the customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport in India, after the Forest Acts were passed.
Ans: Before the Forest Acts:
- Local communities hunted birds and small animals for sustenance.
- This customary practice was prohibited by the new forest laws.
- Those caught hunting faced punishment for poaching.
After the Forest Acts:
- Hunting big game became a recreational sport.
- Colonial authorities promoted large-scale hunting, leading to the extinction of many species.
- Exclusive hunting areas were created, with rewards for killing predators seen as threats to humans.
- Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, and 200,000 wolves were killed between 1875 and 1925.
- The tiger evolved into a sporting trophy, with notable figures like the Maharaja of Sarguja shooting over 1,157 tigers.
Q11. With the help of an example, show how new opportunities of work did not always mean improved condition of the people during colonial times.
Ans: During colonial times, new job opportunities did not always lead to better living conditions for people. For example:
- Assam saw the rise of tea estates, attracting workers from forest communities.
- Communities like the Santhals and Oraons from Jharkhand, and Gonds from Chhattisgarh were recruited as labourers.
- Despite finding work, these individuals faced low wages, poor working conditions and lack of support systems.
- Many could not return home easily due to economic dependence on the plantations.
Q12. How did the spread of railways from the 1850s in India, create a new demand for timber?
Ans: The expansion of the railway network in India from the 1850s significantly increased the demand for timber. Key points include:
- Fuel for locomotives: Timber was essential for powering trains.
- Railway sleepers: Wooden sleepers were needed to support the tracks, with each mile requiring between 1,760 and 2,000 sleepers.
- Rapid expansion: By the 1860s, railway construction accelerated, leading to a surge in timber demand.
- Deforestation: Contractors were hired to supply timber, resulting in widespread tree felling along railway routes.
For instance, in the Madras Presidency alone, around 35,000 trees were cut annually for sleepers by the 1850s.
Train transporting teak out of the forest
Q13. Why were the people of Bastar dissatisfied with the forest policies of the British?
Ans: The people of Bastar were dissatisfied with the British forest policies for several reasons:
- Two-thirds of the forest land was declared a reserved area.
- A ban was imposed on shifting cultivation, hunting, and gathering forest products.
- Many villagers were displaced without notice or compensation.
- There were increased rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods from colonial officials.
- The region suffered from terrible famines during 1899-1900 and 1907-1908.
Q14. Who were the Kalangs? Why did they attack the Dutch forts at Joana?
Ans: The Kalangs were a skilled community in Java, known for their expertise in forest cutting and shifting cultivation. They played a vital role in harvesting teak, which was essential for construction and shipbuilding. During the Dutch colonisation, the Kalangs were forced into labour by the Dutch authorities. In 1770, in response to their oppression, the Kalangs launched an attack on the Dutch fort at Joana as an act of rebellion.
Q15. What were the consequences of the forest laws which the Dutch enacted in Java?
Ans: The forest laws enacted by the Dutch in Java had significant consequences for local villagers:
- Access to forests was restricted, limiting woodcutting to specific areas and purposes, such as building boats and houses.
- Violations, like grazing cattle in young forests or transporting wood without a permit, resulted in severe punishments.
- These laws greatly impacted traditional livelihoods, forcing villagers to abandon practices that relied on forest resources.
Q16. Discuss the link between war and deforestation.
OR
Give three ways in which forests in India and Java were affected by the first and second world wars.
Ans: Both World Wars significantly impacted forests in various regions.
- In India, forests were cut down indiscriminately to meet wartime demands.
- In Java, the Dutch employed a scorched earth policy before the Japanese occupation, destroying sawmills and burning large piles of teak logs to prevent them from falling into enemy hands.
- During the Japanese occupation, forests were heavily exploited for military needs, resulting in extensive deforestation and environmental damage.
Q17. Mention any three causes of deforestation in India under the colonial rule.
Ans: Three causes of deforestation in India during colonial rule are:
- Commercial Crop Cultivation: The British promoted the growth of crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton. This led to the clearing of forests to meet the increasing demand for food and raw materials in Europe during the 19th century.
- Railway Expansion: The introduction of railways from the 1850s created a significant need for wood. Timber was required for fuel and sleepers to support the tracks. Contractors were hired to supply wood, resulting in rapid deforestation along railway lines.
- Plantation Development: Large areas of natural forests were cleared for plantations of tea, coffee, and rubber. The colonial government allocated vast forested lands to European planters at low prices, further contributing to deforestation.
Q18. What were the three categories of the forest that were divided after the amendment of Forest Act in 1878 in India?
Ans: The three categories of forests established after the amendment of the Forest Act in 1878 were:
- Reserved forests: These were the best forests, where villagers were not allowed to take any resources.
- Protected forests: Villagers could use resources from these forests for their needs.
- Village forests: Similar to protected forests, villagers could collect wood and other materials for personal use.
In summary, villagers could only take wood from protected and village forests for building houses or fuel.
Q19. Discuss in brief the Saminist movement of Indonesia.
Ans: The Saminist movement began in the late 19th century, led by Surontiko Samin from Randublatung village. It challenged the idea of state ownership of forests.
- Samin argued that natural resources, such as wood, could not be owned by the state since it did not create them.
- The movement attracted many followers who refused to pay taxes or follow colonial laws.
- In response, the Dutch authorities used repression, but the movement symbolised resistance against colonial exploitation.
Q20. What was the impact of regulation of trade in forest products by the British government in India?
Ans: The regulation of trade in forest products by the British government had significant impacts on local communities:
- The government imposed strict controls on the trade of forest products.
- Local rights for grazing and hunting were severely restricted.
- This led to the loss of livelihoods for many pastoralist and nomadic communities, such as the Korava, Karacha, and Yerukula in the Madras Presidency.
- Some of these communities were unfairly labelled as 'criminal tribes' and were forced into low-paying jobs in factories, mines, and plantations.
- In Assam, forest communities like the Santhals, Oraons, and Gonds faced coercion to work on tea plantations under poor conditions and for minimal wages.
- Many individuals could not easily return to their home villages after being recruited for work.
Q21. In what ways did the development of railways and shipbuilding during colonial rule affect the forests in India?
Ans: Railways:
- Deforestation: The construction of railways required clearing large areas of forest.
- Land Clearing: Forests were removed to lay railway tracks across India.
- Timber Demand: Locomotives needed wood for fuel and sleepers.
- Indiscriminate Logging: Contractors cut down trees without considering sustainability.
Shipbuilding:
- Wooden Ships: In the early 19th century, ships were mainly made from wood, especially oak.
- British Naval Needs: The Royal Navy required wooden ships to maintain colonial power.
- Impact on Oak Forests: Extensive oak forests in England were depleted to meet naval demands.
- Colonial Exploitation: To address timber shortages, the British exploited forests in India.
- Massive Deforestation: Colonial policies led to significant loss of forest areas.
Q22. What was the Blandongdiensten system?
Ans: The Blandongdiensten system was established by the Dutch in Java to fulfil their demand for timber used in shipbuilding and railways. Key features of this system included:
- The Dutch initially imposed rents on cultivated land within forest areas.
- Villages could avoid these rents by providing free labour and buffaloes for timber cutting and transport.
- This system required villages to contribute resources to support Dutch timber extraction efforts.
- It enabled large-scale timber extraction, which was vital for the Dutch economy during that time.
Over time, instead of rent exemptions, villagers received small wages, but their rights to cultivate forest land were limited.
Q23. What are the new developments in forestry?
Ans: Since the 1980s, governments in Asia and Africa have shifted from exploitative forestry to a focus on conservation. Key developments include:
- Scientific forestry practices are being reassessed to include forest communities.
- Prioritising the conservation of forests over timber extraction for sustainable management.
- In regions like Mizoram and Kerala, local communities have successfully preserved dense forests through initiatives like sacred groves (sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc.).
- Communities are actively involved in forest management, with households taking turns in forest patrolling.
- Environmentalists and local communities are exploring diverse approaches to balance conservation and local livelihoods.