Chapter 13 - Indian Architecture(Part -1) - Notes, UPSC / IAS Exam | Art, Architecture and Literature by Shahid Ali PDF Download

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

At times it becomes very important to be reminded that we are that civilization which has spanned atleast 4,500 years and which has left its impact on nearly everything in our lives and society. Imagine UNESCO has listed 830 World Heritage Sites, out of which 26 are in India. This is less than six other countries. Is this not a tangible proof of the creative genius and industry of this ancient land, people, and also of the gifts bestowed on it by nature. Be it the Bhimbetka’s pre historic rock art at one end or the innumerable palaces, mosques, temples, gurudwaras, churches or tombs and sprawling cities and solemn stupas.

Going through the cities of Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Mumbai and Calcutta etc. you find many beautiful buildings. Some are monuments, palaces, temples, churches, mosques and memorials. Many of them had their foundation before Christ and many after the coming of Christ. Many generations have been a part of this architecture which stands mighty and lofty reminding us of that glorious past which has been ours. This is because art and architecture forms an important part of Indian culture. Many distinctive features that we find in the architecture today developed throughout the long period of Indian history. The earliest and most remarkable evidence of Indian architecture is found in the cities of the Harappan Civilization which boast of a unique town planning. In the post Harappan period architectural styles have been classified as Hindu, Buddhist and Jain, The medieval period saw the synthesis of Persian and indigenous styles of architecture. Thereafter the colonial period brought the influence of Western architectural forms to India. Thus Indian architecture is a synthesis of indigenous styles and external influences which has lent it a unique characteristic of its own.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson you will be able to:

 identify the main characteristics and various styles of Indian architecture and sculpture at different times;

 trace the evolution of Indian architecture over the years;

 recognise the contribution of Buddhism and Jainism to the development of Indian architecture;

 appreciate the role played by Gupta, Pallava and Chola rulers in the flourishing temple architecture of India;

 identify the different influences that marked the architectural impressions of the medieval period; and

 point out the important architectural style under the colonial regime.

13.1 ARCHITECTURE-ORIGINS AND INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seemed pleasing to the eye. Thus emerged architecture which is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders and capabilities of the workers.

Architectural Forms and Construction Details: Architecture accommodated the local and regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity, religious practice of different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities and helps us understand the rich traditions of India.

Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods, evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so has the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of evolution of Indian Architecture.

13.2 HARAPPAN PERIOD

The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with expert town planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well planned roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before the coming of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated under the Archaeological Survey of India established by the British.

The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses pillared halls and public baths.

Main features of Harappan remains are:

1. The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.

2, Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly at the bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also some protection by way of natural barriers of the river .

3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.

4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut each other at right angles.

5. The Indus Valley people used standardised burnt mud-bricks as building material.

6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings, administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards, There is no evidence of temples.

7. Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea of an organised collection and distribution system.

8. Along with large public buildings, there is evidence of small one roomed constructions that appear to be working peoples quarters.

9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was discovered at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence of what appears to be a public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. It is significant that most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.

10. At some sites a dominant citadal was excavated in the western part containing the public buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of some kind of political authority ruling over the cities.

11. There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which shows that there may have been a fear of being attacked.

12. Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those times by sea.

Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well planned drainage system in the residential parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones along the sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided for the purpose of cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses were also meticulous. Evidence of stairs shows houses were often double storied. Doors were in the side lanes to prevent dust from entering the houses.

The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning skills and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut each other at right angles and were very well laid out. As the Indus Valley settlements were located on the banks of the river, they were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of this calamity, the Indus Valley people built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers upon layers of settlements and buildings were found during the excavations. The decline and final destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around the second millennium BC remains a mystery to this day.

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Many thick layers of well baked bricks laid in gypsum mortar were joined together for the purpose of making the whole construction very strong. The strength of the buildings can be seen by the fact that they have successfully survived the ravages of atleast five thousand years.

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The Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s first bronze sculpture of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A terracotta figure of a male in a yogic posture has also been excavated. Beautiful personal ornaments, soft stone seals with a pictoral script and images of humped bulls, Pashupati unicorn have also been excavated.

The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo and reeds; the Aryan culture was largely a rural one and thus one finds few examples of grand buildings. This was because Aryans used perishable material like wood for the construction of royal palaces which have been completely destroyed over time. The most important feature of the Vedic period was the making of fire altars which soon became an important and integral part of the social and religious life of the people even today. In many Hindu homes and especially in their marriages, these fire altars play an important role even today. Soon courtyard and mandaps were build with altars for worship of fire which was the most important feature of architecture. We also find references of Gurukuls and Hermitages. Unfortunately no structure of the Vedic period remains to be seen. Their contribution to the architectural history is the use of wood along with brick and stone for building their houses.

In the 6th century B.C. India entered a significant phase of her history. There arose two new religions - Jainism and Buddhism and even the Vedic religion underwent a change. Almost simultaneously larger states sprang up which further provided for a new type of architecture. From this period i.e. the expansion of Magadha into an empire, the development of architecture received further impetus. From now it was possible to trace Indian architecture in an almost unbroken sequence.

Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of early architectural style. The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved and at the major sites where important events in Buddha’s life took place. Stupas were built of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was built at his birthplace Lumbini; the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.

Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became important landmarks of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These became important sites for Buddha’s order of monks and nuns - the sangha. Monasteries (viharas), and centres of preaching, teaching and learning came up at such places. Congregational halls (chaitya) for teaching and interaction between the common people and the monks were also built up.

From now on religion began to influence architecture. While Buddhists and Jains began to build stupas, Viharas and Chaityas, the first temple building activity started during the Gupta rule.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.1

1. What do you mean by the evolution of Indian culture?

2. How did Harappan’s protect their civilization?

3. How were the engineering skills of Harappan people evident?

4. Where was the remains of Buddha buried?

5. Where were the Buddha’s statues found?

6. When was the first temple built in India?

7. What do you mean by Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas?

8. Where was a dockyard excavated?

13.3 EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD

An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material prosperity of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It was a large palace carved out of wood.

In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft high.

The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan architechture. The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.

The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art which developed later. The other schools of art and architecture were the indigenous Mathura school and Amaravati school. A large number of statues of the Buddha were built by the artisans of these schools specially after first century AD under the influence of the Kushanas. Under the Gandhara school of art life-like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattavas were made in the likeness of Greek gods even, though the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indian. Rich ornaments, custumes drapery were used to impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in stone, terracotta, cement like material and clay. 

The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. They had more of spiritual look in them. Here along with Buddha we find sculptures of Jaina dieties also.

The Amaravati school developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region. A great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are adorned with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is another place that is famous for Buddhist architecture.

The Gupta period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. An example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) which had a central shrine or garbhagriha where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon (Kanpur district) are two fine examples of this period..

Cave architecture

The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase in the history of Indian architecture. More than thousand caves have been excavated between second century BC and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well as mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods and goddesses.

Rock-cut temples

Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The chaitya at Karle with fine high halls and polished decorative wall is a remarkable example of rock-cut architecture. The  Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakutas and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are other examples of rock-cut temples. Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the patrons of art and builders who decorated these temples with beautiful sculptures.

Free-standing temples

The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of the Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of temples. The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built other structural temples like Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples most famous being the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style, complete with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. Magnificent temples were built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings reached even greater heights.

In north and eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed by them is referred to as the Nagara style. Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall).

Orissa has some of the most beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers and the Mukteshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple at Puri.

The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler Narshimha Deva I. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the sun god) and has been designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot.

The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple.

Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built under the patronage of Solanki rulers.

Somnath temple at Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Govinda temple at Mathura, Kamakhya temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat of Kolkata are some other important temples which bear testimony to temple building activity of the Indian sub continent.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.2

1. How did Megasthenes describe the palace of Chandra Gupta Maurya?

2. Name the two stupas that shows the achievement of Mauryan architecture?

3. Where were the teachings of Dhamma inscribed in Ashoka reign?

4. Name the few schools of architecture of early historic period?

5. Where are Udaygiri caves?

6. Who built the Kailash temple of Ellora?

7. Who built the Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram?

8. What is Dravida style of architecture?

9. Name the temple built by Chola king at Tanjore?

10. Define Nagara style of architecture?

11. Who built the Sun temple at Konark?

12. Name the famous Jain temple at Mount Abu. Rajasthan.

13.4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

Delhi Sultanate

With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved. This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenious structures. A middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period.

The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower. Many other buildings were later constructed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful architectural designs even today. Decorative elements were used to make the building outstanding in its beauty. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz T ughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some examples. Though their buildings were not beautiful but had very strong walls, massive as well as impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adopted and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in the process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy and practical.

Regional Kingdoms

With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture. In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built. In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golkunda are just a few famous buildings. Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of north India. In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at Gaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen. The rulers of Vijayanagar, an empire which was established during this period also erected many beautiful buildings and temples and had a number of achievements to their credit. Though only ruins remain but the temples of Vithalswami and Hazar Rama at Hampi are good examples.

BAHAMANI

The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has a covered countryard.

Mughals

The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The synthesis of style which began earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements. During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main building. The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets

Next came the British who ruled the country for 200 years and left behind a legacy of colonial style architecture in their buildings.

Monuments Built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important buildings. The crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri., 40 km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim Chisti is exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The Jama Masjid was built with the influence of the Persian style. The Dewan-i-Amm and the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and Panch Mahal are another notable buildings. The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It was build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara.

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From 1526, the Mughal architecture gave a totaly different dimension to tomb building. These are built on platforms and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamental fountains. A famous example is the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri - three domes of 290 ft by 470 ft and with two royal tombs.

Another famous tomb is Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra (A.D. 1593-1613). The Taj Mahal, Agra (A.D. 1630) built by Shah Jehan is considered one of the ‘Wonders of the World’. It is a royal tomb in marble built on a platform 18ft high and 313 ft. square. Each corner is marked by a minaret 133ft high. The central dome is 80 ft. high and 58ft in diameter. Marble is inlaid with semi-precious stones like jasper and agate. It stands by the bank of the river Jamuna in the middle of marble terraces, fountains and lakes flanked by cypress trees. Mughal architecture declined with the failing political power of the Mughal Empire.

A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens developed around the tombs and other buildings. The Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and lahore were developed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan respectively. The Mughals encouraged cultural and architectural growth of India

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.3

1. What was the style of architecture of the Turks?

2. Name some of the tombs and mosques constructed during the sultanate period?

3. Which is the largest dome in the world?

4. What is pietra dura?

5. Which building reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire?