Administration of Vijayanagar, Source of Income & Cultural & Artistic Achievements | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

King

• Supreme authority: The king of the Vijayanagar Empire was the fountain-head of all power in the state and the final authority in civil, military and judicial matters.
• Rule according to dharma: Kings were expected to rule in conformity with dharma - seeking the goodwill and welfare of the people and promoting peace and plenty. This ideal of kingship is emphasised in Krishnadeva Raya's Amuktamalyada, which counsels that a crowned king should always have an eye towards dharma.
• Functional monarchy: Royal power was strong but not arbitrary in ideal; the king governed through institutions, councils and accepted norms of governance and religion.

Ministers and Central Council

• Council of State: The king was assisted by a council that included ministers, provincial governors (viceroys or nayakas), military commanders, learned priests and poets. Members were nominated by the king rather than elected.
• Social background of ministers: Ministers were drawn from Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas; ministerial office could be hereditary or non-hereditary.
• Principal officers: Important state officers included the Prime Minister, Chief Treasurer, Custodian of the Jewels and the Prefect of Police (Kotwal). The Prime Minister advised the king on important matters; the Prefect maintained law and order in the capital.
• Corruption and access to the king: Contemporary accounts (for example Nuniz) describe widespread corruption: merchants and petitioners typically had to pass through several officials and offer payments to secure audiences or favours.
• Administrative departments: Finance and revenue were organised under a revenue department called Athavane. Military affairs were organised under a department called Kandachara.

Justice

• King as supreme judge: The king functioned as the supreme court; in important cases his decision was final. Petitions were presented to the king or to the Prime Minister, and disposed of according to merit and customary law.
• Civil law: Civil disputes were adjudicated on the basis of Hindu law and local custom; documents were attested by witnesses and civil penalties (fines) were common for breaches.
• Criminal law and punishments: Criminal justice was severe by modern standards. Torture could be used to extract truth; crimes such as theft, adultery and treason could be punished by death or mutilation. Contemporary chroniclers record extreme punishments, including execution by elephants in certain cases.

The Court and Royal Household

• Magnificence of the court: The Vijayanagar rulers maintained a grand court that spent considerable royal resources. The court was attended by nobles, learned priests, astrologers and musicians.
• Cultural patronage: Courts were not only centres of governance but also of literary, ritual and artistic activity; poets and scholars were retained and rewarded.

Provincial Government and Local Administration

• Division of territory: The empire was divided into provinces for administrative convenience. Terms used for large territorial units included rajya, mandala and chavadi (or chavadi).
• Sub-divisions: Provinces were further divided into territorial units such as venthe, nadu, sima, village and sthala (a unit comprising several fields). In the Tamil areas, venthe was higher than a nadu, which in turn was higher than a village; kottam ranked above a parru.
• Viceroys and Nayakas: Many provinces were administered by viceroys or nayakas/naiks, who were often members of the royal house, powerful nobles or descendants of older ruling families. H. Krishna Shastri suggested the empire was divided into six principal provinces, each under a viceroy.
• Village as basic unit: The village was the basic unit of administration and largely self-sufficient. Village assemblies managed local affairs and had hereditary officers such as the village accountant (senabova), village watchman and the superintendent of forced labour.
• Remuneration of local officers: Local officers were compensated by grants of land or by a share of agricultural produce rather than regular salaries.

Source of Income

• Primary revenue - land tax: The main source of state income was land revenue. Land revenue administration was organised under the department Athavane.
• Classification of land: For assessment purposes land was broadly classified into wet land, dry land, orchards and woodland; assessments varied with type.
• Conventional share: Under classical Hindu law the state share was often stated as one-sixth of produce, but in practice shares could be higher to meet the state's fiscal needs.
• Contemporary account (Nuniz): According to Nuniz, "All land belongs to the king and from his land the captain holds it. They make it over to husband-men who pay nine-tenths of the produce to their lords, who, in their turn, pay one-half to the king." This illustrates layered tenancy and high effective deductions in some cases.
• Other taxes and duties: Peasants paid additional levies such as grazing tax and marriage tax. The state collected customs duties, tolls on roads, and revenue from gardening and plantations.
• Taxes on occupations and trades: Taxes were levied on manufacturers and craftsmen (potters, washermen, tailors, shoemakers), mendicants, barbers and prostitutes; income from certain sources (for example, prostitution) was recorded for specific uses such as maintaining policemen attached to the Prefect of the City (Abdur Razzak records an income of 12,000 fanams from prostitutes devoted to police maintenance).
• Control of ingress and egress: Access to the capital could be controlled via gates; the right to collect duties at a city gate was frequently leased to the highest bidder. Nuniz reports that the gate of the city was rented for 12,000 pardaos each year and that traders and animals entering had to pay stipulated dues.
• Everyday market duties: Duties were collected on articles of ordinary consumption such as grain, fruit, vegetables and fats; such market duties were an important revenue source.

The Army

• Military organisation: Military affairs were organised under the Kandachara department. The head of military administration was generally called the Dandanayaka (also rendered Dannayaka), the Commander-in-Chief.
• Feudal contingents: The military organisation had a feudal character. The king maintained a standing army but provincial governors and nayakas were expected to send contingents in times of emergency.
• Recruitment and finance: Contemporary observers (e.g., Nuniz) noted that rulers could recruit soldiers as funds permitted; mercenary recruitment and rewards were part of military logistics.
• Composition: The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery and camels; elephants were also important components of the army.
• Relative strengths: Contemporary chroniclers often judged the Vijayanagar army to be inferior to the better-trained Muslim armies in aspects of endurance and tactical flexibility. Heavy reliance on elephants sometimes proved ineffective against archers and artillery.

Cultural and Artistic Achievements

• Multilingual patronage: The Vijayanagar kings patronised scholarship and literature in Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada; royal patronage led to the production of many important works.
• Sanskrit scholarship: Eminent scholars such as Sayana (renowned commentator on the Vedas) and his brother Madhava Vidyaraya flourished in the early period of the empire.
• Krishnadeva Raya's court: The court of Krishnadeva Raya contained poets and scholars of high merit. Prominent among them were Allasani Peddana (author of Manucharita), Nandi Timana (author of Parijatapaharana) and Bhattumurti (author of Narasabhupaliyam).
• Continuity of patronage: Later rulers continued the literary and artistic traditions, producing works on music, dance, drama, grammar and philosophy. The court and temples were important centres for artistic production.
• Architecture: Vijayanagar architecture is noted for great temples and public works. Krishnadeva Raya built the famous Hazara (Hazra) temple, which A. H. Longhurst described as "one of the most perfect specimens of Hindu temple architecture in existence." The Vitthala-svami temple is another outstanding example of the distinctive Vijayanagar style with monumental pillared halls and sculptural decoration.

Additional clarifications and commonly used administrative terms

• Brahmadeya / Agrahara: Land grants made to Brahmanas and for religious/educational purposes; these grants often carried tax exemptions and helped sustain learned classes and temple institutions.
• Sarvamanya: A term applied to certain lands granted to temples for their general maintenance.
• Manyam: Tax-free land grants given to officials or service-holders (for example, Ayagars) in return for services; these grants were often hereditary.
• Village institutions: Village assemblies (local councils) managed local matters; hereditary officers such as accountants and watchmen were central to record-keeping and local order.
• Fiscal vocabulary: A variety of local terms denoted different taxes, levies and grants; while terminology varied regionally, these terms formed the practical vocabulary of revenue administration.

Summary

The Vijayanagar Empire combined a strong central monarchy with a feudal administrative structure. The king exercised supreme authority but governed through a council and a network of provincial and local officers. Land revenue, supplemented by customs, tolls and occupational taxes, formed the fiscal backbone; military organisation was feudal and relied on contributions from provincial chiefs. The rulers were notable patrons of religion, literature, language and monumental architecture - a cultural flourishing that produced important works in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil and left durable architectural monuments.