Anglo-Maratha Wars & Conquest of Maharashtra & Anglo-Sikh Wars & Conquest

Anglo-maratha Wars And Conquest Of Maharashtra

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)

Causes

• Succession struggle within the Maratha polity: A contest for power between Sawai Madhav Rao, supported by the
  minister Nana Phadnavis, and his uncle Raghunath Rao.
• British intervention: The East India Company attempted to exploit Maratha internal dissension by supporting Raghunath Rao.
• Early clashes: Local reverses and victories punctuated the war; one early British setback recorded at Talegaon (date cited in older sources).
• Long overland expedition: A British force under Goddard marched from Calcutta to Ahmedabad (a notable military feat for the period) and won significant actions during 1779-1780 while operating in central India.
• Stalemate: By 1781-82 both sides reached a military deadlock, exhausting war resources and incentives for continued fighting.

Results

• Treaty of Salbai (1782): Restored the status quo ante bellum and brought nearly twenty years of peace between the Company and the Marathas.
• Strategic effect: The treaty allowed the British to direct pressure against Mysore with Maratha cooperation in recovering Company territories from Hyder Ali where necessary.
• Political outcome: The British avoided a united front of Indian powers and achieved a temporary division in Indian politics, strengthening their position for future interventions.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

Causes

• Wellesley's expansionist policy: The Governor-General, Arthur Wellesley (and Company policy under him), pursued active interference in Maratha internal affairs and sought to impose the Subsidiary Alliance on Maratha states.
• Weakening of Maratha leadership: By the end of the 18th century many experienced Maratha leaders had died, creating opportunities for British intervention.
• Internal feuds: Fratricidal strife and rivalry among Maratha chiefs weakened unity; this provided the British the chance to secure a treaty with the Peshwa-most importantly the Treaty of Bassein (1802)-which brought the Peshwa into a dependent relationship with the Company.

Course and Results

• Major battles: British forces under Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of the Scindias and Bhonsles at Assaye and Argaon in 1803.
• Subsidiary treaties: Following military victories, the Company concluded subsidiary agreements with several Maratha chiefs which brought them into dependent relationships with the British.
• Holkar question: The British were unable to decisively subdue Yashwantrao Holkar and eventually settled for terms of peace (peace treaty at Rajghat), leaving Holkar semi-independent.
• Political consequence: The war firmly established British predominance in Maratha politics and moved the Company closer to the status of paramount power in India by reducing independent Maratha authority.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818)

Causes

• Maratha resentment: Growing dissatisfaction among Marathas at the loss of autonomy and increasing British interference.
• Control by British Residents: Rigid supervision and interference by British residents and officials over Maratha chiefs intensified friction and provoked rebellion.

Results

• Dethronement of the Peshwa: The Peshwa was deposed, pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur; his territories were annexed into Company administration, contributing to the expansion of the Bombay Presidency.
• Creation of Satara kingdom: A reduced princely state of Satara was created from former Peshwa lands to appease Maratha sentiment and pride.
• Land concessions: Major Maratha chiefs ceded large territories to the Company, and thereafter the chiefs were politically subordinate to British authority.
• Long-term impact: The defeat marked the end of Maratha power as an independent political force and confirmed Company paramountcy in western and central India.

Anglo-Sikh Wars and Conquest of Punjab

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)

Causes

• Political instability after Ranjit Singh: Following the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1839) Punjab suffered rapid political breakdown - three rulers (Kharak Singh, Nau Nihal Singh and Sher Singh) died within a short span and succession led to instability; the young Dalip Singh (son of Ranjit Singh) succeeded as a child in 1845 with Rani Jindan as regent, while the army (the Khalsa) acted with considerable autonomy.
• British encirclement and preparations: From the 1830s the British pursued policies to increase influence in and around Punjab - occupation of Ferozepore in 1835, establishment of residents at Ludhiana and Sind, and a general policy of military preparation (Company forces in the north increased from c. 2,500 in 1836 to about 14,000 by 1843).
• Strategic mistrust: The annexation of Sind in 1843 and other British moves heightened Sikh suspicions regarding British intentions toward Punjab.

Course of the War

• Early engagements: The British under Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikh army led by Prime Minister Lal Singh at Mudki (1845).
• Further battles: The Sikhs under their commander-in-chief Tej Singh were defeated at the action near Ferozeshah; Sikhs won an important engagement at Buddowal (Buddewal) against a British detachment commanded by Sir Harry Smith, but later the Sikhs were defeated at Aliwal and Sobraon (1846), the latter being a fiercely contested battle.
• British occupation: After Sobraon the British forces crossed the Sutlej and occupied Lahore, bringing the first war to a close.

Treaty of Lahore (March 1846)

• Territorial and financial terms: The Jullundur Doab and other territories were ceded to the British; the Sikhs were required to pay an indemnity of Rs. 1.5 crore. As the Sikhs could pay only half, the rest of the amount was discharged by the sale of Kashmir to Gulab Singh.
• Political control: A British Resident, Sir Henry Lawrence, was appointed at Lahore; Dalip Singh was recognised as ruler with his mother Rani Jindan as regent under British supervision.
• Military restriction: The Sikh army was reduced in size and the ruler was prohibited from employing European officers without British consent; British troops were permitted free passage through Sikh territory if required.

Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846)

• Regency arrangements: Rani Jindan was removed as regent and a Council of Regency composed of eight Sikh sardars under the presidency of Sir Henry Lawrence was established to administer Punjab.
• British garrison: The Sikhs were required to station and pay for a British force at Lahore (payment of Rs. 22 lakhs) and accept enhanced powers for the Governor-General in matters of fortification and garrisoning.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)

Causes

• Desire for revenge: Many in the Sikh army wished to avenge the humiliation of 1846.
• Discontent of Sardars: Sikh chiefs resented increasing British control and the reduction of Sikh military power.
• Maltreatment of the royal household: The treatment and transportation of Rani Jindan (first to Shaikupur and later to Benares) and reduction of her pension fuelled anger.
• Revolt in Multan: The rising of Mulraj, the governor of Multan, and the murder of two British officers, Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, sent to take over administration became the immediate trigger for general Sikh rebellion.
• Sher Singh's rebellion: Sher Singh, initially sent to suppress Mulraj, joined the revolt, precipitating a wider uprising by the Khalsa and Sikh sardars.

Course of the War

• Indecisive early battles: The Battle of Ramnagar (1848) between Sher Singh and Lord Gough ended inconclusively.
• Chillianwala: The major encounter at Chillianwala (1849) resulted in a bloody and indecisive fight, causing heavy losses on both sides.
• Capture of Multan: British operations captured Multan and forced the surrender of Mulraj (transported for life).
• Decisive defeat at Gujrat: The Battle of Gujrat (near the Chenab) in 1849 saw a clear British victory under Lord Gough leading to the surrender of Sher Singh and other Sikh chiefs.
• Annexation: In 1849 Lord Dalhousie formally annexed Punjab; Dalip Singh was deposed, pensioned and sent to England along with his mother.

Administration after Annexation

• Board of Three Commissioners (1849): Administration of Punjab was initially placed under a board consisting of the Lawrence brothers (Sir Henry and Sir John Lawrence) and Charles G. Mansel.
• Chief Commissioner (1853): The Board was later abolished and Sir John Lawrence became the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab in 1853, establishing the civil and military administrative framework for the province.

British Annexation of Sind (1843)

Background

• Political structure: After Mughal decline Sind grew as an autonomous region - initially under the Kalora rulers and, from around 1783, under the Amirs (local Baluchi chieftains). Sind was often divided into polities such as Hyderabad, Mirpur and Khairpur, each ruled by branches of the same ruling families.

Causes of British interest

• Commercial potential: Control of the Indus promised trade and communications advantages for British India, linking the interior with sea routes.
• Strategic concerns: Fear of Russian expansion in Central Asia encouraged the British to secure western approaches to India; control of Sind was part of a wider policy of strategic depth.
• Regional influence: Control over Sind offered the British better influence in Persia and Afghanistan and secured a western frontier for the Company.

Early relations with the British

• Diplomacy: Lord Minto I sent an embassy to the Amirs in 1809 and concluded a friendship treaty.
• Exploration and trade opening: Travelers such as Alexander Burnes (journey up the Indus) and treaties concluded by Lord Bentinck (1832) opened rivers and roads of Sind to British trade.
• Subsidiary Treaty (1839): Under Lord Auckland the Amirs were pressured into subsidiary arrangements which increased British influence.

War and Annexation

• Escalation: Under Lord Ellenborough relations deteriorated; incidents and provocations were used to justify military action.
• Command and campaign: Sir Charles Napier was appointed British Resident in Sind (1842) and led operations against Sindhi forces.
• Key engagements: Napier captured important strongholds, including the fortress of Imamgarh, and defeated Sindhi forces decisively at the Battle of Miani (1843). He also defeated Sher Muhammad of Mirpur at Dabo and compelled submission.
• Annexation and governance: Sind was formally annexed to British India in 1843 and Sir Charles Napier became its first Governor. The British incorporated Sind into their administrative framework, using it as a strategic and commercial base.

Significance of the Conquests

• Territorial expansion: The defeat and subjugation of major regional powers - the Marathas, Sikhs and Amirs of Sind - extended Company rule across large parts of western, central and northern India.
• Political consolidation: These wars weakened indigenous polities and established the East India Company as the paramount power, enabling direct administration or indirect control through subsidiary arrangements and resident supervision.
• Strategic depth and frontier security: Control of Punjab and Sind secured India's north-western approaches and provided bases for British operations toward Afghanistan and Persia.
• Administrative precedents: Post-war administrative structures (residents, regency councils, boards of commissioners, chief commissioners) became models for Company governance and later Crown administration.
• Economic and social impact: Transfers of territory, indemnities, and land concessions altered local economies and political hierarchies; sale of Kashmir and other settlements had long-term regional consequences.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Subsidiary Alliance: A policy by which Indian rulers accepted the stationing of British troops in their territory, gave up independent foreign policy, and either paid for the troops or ceded territory in return for British protection.
• Paramountcy: The position of the British as the dominant power to which Indian states were subordinate in external affairs.
• Khalsa: The Sikh army, an institutional military force of the Sikh state, whose autonomy and power were central to the Anglo-Sikh conflicts.
• Treaty of Salbai, Treaty of Bassein, Treaty of Lahore: Major treaties that illustrate how diplomacy and formal agreements followed military campaigns to reorganise power relations.

The sequence of the Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh wars and the annexation of Sind mark a decisive phase in the transformation of the political map of India in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Military victories were translated into treaties and administrative arrangements that established British political and strategic control over large regions, reshaping Indian polities and laying foundations for later colonial governance.