Nitin Singhania Test: Buddhism And Jainism - 1 for UPSC Art & Culture

The first statement is incorrect. Chaitya (prayer hall with a central stupa) and Vihara (monastic residence with cells) are conventions of Buddhist cave architecture. Early and characteristic examples include Bhaja, Bedsa, Karla, Ajanta and Nashik. Although Jain rock-cut works (for example at Ellora) were later produced and sometimes show borrowings, the terms and forms chaitya and vihara are conventionally associated with Buddhist monastic complexes rather than originating as Jain components.

The second statement is correct. The systematic development of rock-cut chaitya halls and viharas in western India was significantly promoted under the patronage of the Satavahana dynasty (roughly 1st century BCE-2nd century CE). Important examples such as the Bhaja caves and the Karla chaitya (around 2nd century CE) date to this period; characteristic features include apsidal plans, central stupas, rows of pillars and the horseshoe-shaped chaitya window.

Hence, only the second statement is correct.

Jainism. Both works are part of the Jain literary tradition.

The Kalpa Sūtra is a prominent Śvetāmbara text that contains biographies of prominent Tīrthaṅkaras (notably Mahavira), rules for monastic conduct, and ritual material read during the festival of Paryushana; it is well known for its illustrated manuscripts. The Kalakacharya Katha is a Jain narrative about the monk Kalakāchārya and related legends, also preserved in the Śvetāmbara tradition and frequently represented in Jain painting and storytelling.

1 only

Statement 1 is correct; Statements 2 and 3 are incorrect.

Avalokitesvara is the bodhisattva most closely identified with compassion. In Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions he (or, in East Asia, the female form Guanyin) is venerated as the compassionate listener and responder to sentient beings' cries; other traditional names include Padmapani and Lokesvara, and the Dalai Lama is traditionally regarded as an incarnation of this figure.

Maitreya is traditionally regarded as the bodhisattva who will become the next fully enlightened Buddha (the future Buddha), currently said to reside in Tushita heaven. He is not primarily described simply as a figure linked to meditation and practice, so the second statement is incorrect.

Samantabhadra is a bodhisattva associated with practice and vows (prominent in the Avatamsaka Sūtra and East Asian devotional practice), not the future Buddha. Therefore the third statement is incorrect.

1 and 3 only.

Statement 1 is correct.Vajrayana, often called tantric or esoteric Buddhism, teaches that through specialized practices-such as mantra recitation, mandala and deity yoga, ritual, and guru initiation-one can aim for liberation in a single lifetime by accelerating the path and transforming ordinary mental afflictions into the path to awakening.

Statement 2 is incorrect.Vajrayana did not originate as a distinct school in China. It developed in India as an esoteric extension of Mahayana traditions (consolidating by around the 7th century CE) and was later transmitted to Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia and influenced regions of East Asia; China had its own streams of esoteric practice but is not the originating homeland of Vajrayana.

Statement 3 is correct. Most historical and textbook treatments present Vajrayana as a later, esoteric branch of Mahayana Buddhism that incorporates Mahayana ideals while adding tantric methods intended to produce rapid realization.

Therefore, the only correct statements are 1 and 3 only.

Buddhism

These artefacts were uncovered in 1898 by William Claxton Peppé at Piprahwa in Uttar Pradesh; the excavation of a stupa produced a small reliquary containing bone fragments and an inscription referring to the Shakya community, traditionally linked to the family/clan of the Buddha.

Scholars date the original enshrinement of these relics to around the 3rd century BCE, placing them in the early Buddhist (Mauryan/Ashokan) period; for this reason the finds are identified with the Buddhist religious tradition.

As physical remains associated with the Buddha or his community, the Piprahwa relics are regarded as part of Buddhist heritage and carry significant spiritual and archaeological importance for Buddhists worldwide.

Only one

Ajivika was a heterodox (nastik) school of Indian philosophy, not an orthodox (astik) one; therefore the first statement is incorrect.

The second statement is correct: the sect is traditionally attributed to Makkhali Gosala (often dated to circa 5th century BCE), a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira, who is regarded as the founder of the Ajivikas.

The third statement is incorrect as worded. The rock-cut caves at the Barabar Hills (including the Lomas Rishi cave) date to the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE) and are associated with royal patronage from Ashoka for the Ajivikas; they are not specifically recorded as having been patronized by Chandragupta Maurya.

Hence, only the second statement is correct.

Neither 1 and 2

Statement 1 is correct. Jainism accepts the existence of celestial beings (devas or gods) but holds that they are still subject to karma, rebirth and death; they do not possess final emancipation. A Jina (or Tirthankara) is a being who has conquered karmic bonds and attained omniscience and liberation, and therefore occupies a higher spiritual status than the gods.

Statement 2 is correct. Jain teaching emphasizes the three jewels (Ratnatraya): samyak darshan (right faith/belief), samyak jnana (right knowledge) and samyak charitra (right conduct). These three together form the core path for purification and liberation in Jainism.

Both statements are therefore true, so the choice asserting that neither statement is incorrect is the correct conclusion.

A: 1 and 2 only

Statement 1 is correct. Anekantavada (the doctrine of non-absolutism or manifoldness of truth) is a foundational Jain philosophical principle asserting that reality is complex and can be apprehended from multiple perspectives; it underlies Jain ethics of tolerance and careful speech.

Statement 2 is correct. Both Buddhism and Jainism emerged from the Śramaṇa tradition and did not accept the Vedas as the final authoritative scripture, developing their own canonical teachings outside the Vedic framework.

Statement 3 is incorrect. Madhyamaka and Yogācāra are principal philosophical schools within Mahayana Buddhism, not branches of Jainism.

Thus, only the first two statements are correct.

A protective goddess associated with Tirthankaras in Jainism.

In Jain tradition the term Sasana Devi (also spelled Shasana Devi) denotes a protective attendant deity, typically a yakshini, paired with a specific Tirthankara.

These goddesses act as guardians and ritual attendants, appear in temple iconography alongside the Tirthankara images, and often receive independent popular devotion within Jain practice.

Examples include Padmavati (the sasana-devi of Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara), Ambika (associated with Neminatha, the 22nd), and Chakreshwari (the sasana-devi of Adinatha/Rishabhanatha, the 1st Tirthankara).

The role of Sasana Devis is protective and intercessory rather than creative or supreme, reflecting how local goddess cults were incorporated into the Jain religious and ritual landscape.

Both 1 and 2

Statement 1 is correct. The Jataka corpus preserves stories of the previous lives of the Buddha (in human and animal forms) used to illustrate moral qualities and the practice of compassion, generosity, and other virtues; these tales form part of the early Buddhist literary tradition and are included in the Pāli Canon and other Buddhist collections.

Statement 2 is correct. Scenes from the Jataka tales were commonly rendered in sculptural relief on the railings (vedika) and toranas of early stupas - for example at Bharhut and Sanchi - using pictorial conventions described as synoptic, continuous, and episodic narration. Alongside these, key episodes of the Buddha's life such as birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakra-pravartana, and mahaparinibbana were also popular sculptural subjects.

Therefore, both statements are correct.