Test: History - 9 - UPSC MCQ

• The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of drama, dance and music. 
• It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C. E. The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda. 
• According to the author, he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda. There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses.
• Hence both the statements are correct

• The twelfth-century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68). His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). 
• The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the ill-treatment of women and child marriage. They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship. Hence statement (a) is correct. 
• The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them followers, amongst those who were marginalized within the Brahmanical social order. Hence statement (b) is correct. 
• The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows. Hence statement (d) is correct. 
• Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not practice funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras. 
• Virashaiva was an anti-establishment movement. This is evidenced by the fact that not only was the religion in defiance of Brahmanism, it also militantly opposed Jainism, the religion that dominated Karnataka in the 12th-13th centuries. Interestingly, the Abbalur inscription says that one of the main ways in which Jainism was defeated was by large-scale destruction of Jain basadis (temples) and in later examples also the reuse or whole-scale conversions of Jain temples. Hence option (c) is not correct. 

• The Mauryan Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power based in Magadha and founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BCE. 
• The decline of the Maurya Dynasty in 232 B.C. was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka. The last king was Brihadratha was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga who was a Brahmin. Whereas, in 326 B.C., Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he advanced towards Taxila. Alexander was then challenged by king Porus, ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab.The Indians were defeated in the fierce battle (Battle of Hydaspes). Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory. Dhanananda was the ruler of Magadha during the Alexander's invasion of India. Hence, option (a) is not correct. 
• Other reasons for the decline of Mauryan Empire:
  1. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings 
  2. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power.

• Khayal: The word ‘Khayal’ is derived from Persian and means “idea or imagination”. Origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau. Hence, statement 3 is correct. It is popular amongst the artists as this provides greater scope for improvisation. 
• It is based on the repertoire of short songs ranging from two to eight lines. These songs or compositions are also referred to as a ‘Bandish’. Hence, statement 1 is not correct. 
• Khayal is also composed in a particular raga and tala and has a brief text. Texts mainly include praise of kings, description of seasons, pranks of Lord Krishna, divine love and sorrow of separation 
• Major gharanas in khayal: Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra, and Bhendibazaar Gharana. 
• Gwalior Gharana is the oldest and is also considered the mother of all other gharanas. 
• Poorabi and Punjab styles are variants in Thumri. Hence, statement 2 is not correct. "Qawwalis" are the compositions and devotional music of Sufi saints who belong to tradition of Islamic mysticism.

1. King's palace is an important part of the Vijayanagara kingdom. The “king’s palace” is the largest of the enclosures but has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence. It has two of the most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall” and the “mahanavami dibba”. 
   • The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them. 
   • The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It had a staircase going up to the second floor, which rested on these pillars. The pillars being closely spaced would have left little free space, and thus it is not clear what the hall was used for. 
   • Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. 
   • There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. 
   • Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dussehra (northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular India). 
   • The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power, and suzerainty on this occasion. The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion. 
   • On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute. 
   • One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre of Vijayanagara Kingdom is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travelers in the nineteenth century. While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for. It is also called the Kamal Mahal or Chitragani Mahal. The curves of the palace are given an Islamic touch while the multi-layered roof design is moreover related to Indo style of buildings. It is designed as a palace for royal ladies of those times to mingle around and enjoy recreational activities. The Mahal also served as a meeting point for the king and his ministers. 

Hence option (a) is the correct answer.

• The tradition of painting also existed in the south in Tamil Nadu with regional variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola dynasties. 
• During the reign of Pandyas, the Thirumalapuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanavasal are some of the examples of the mural painting art. Hence, statement 1 is correct. 
• In Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of Jaina shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets. On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures of celestial nymphs. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Madurai. Their royal emblem was carp. The Pandya kings assumed titles like Thennavar and Minavar. 
• Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country including the flourishing seport of Korkai.

• lqta is an Arabic word and the institution had been in force in the early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the State. It was used in the Caliphate administration as a way of financing operations and paying civil and military officers. 
• The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land nor was it hereditary though the holders of iqta tended to'-acquire hereditary rights in Feroz Tughluq's reign. Hence statement 2 is correct. 
• These revenue assignments were transferable, the iqta-holder being transferred from one region to another every three or four year 
• The Iqta system was provided institutional status by Iltutmish and later this system became the mainstay of the sultanate administration under the slave dynasty. 
• The initial Turkish conquests in the early 13th century displaced many local chiefs(whom the contemporary sources refer to as rai and rana). In order to consolidate the Turkish rulers made revenue assignments (iqta), in lieu of cash, to their nobles(umma). The assignees (known as muqti and wali)

1. Image of both metal and stone have been discovered in Harappan sites 
   • The Best metal specimen is that of a bronze image of a nude woman dancer at Mohenjodar
   • The best stone specimen is a steatite image of a bearded man at Mohenjodar
   • Stone sculptures have also been found from Harappa, Dabarkot and Mundigak. 
2. Terracotta figurines: 
   • Terracotta figurines were made of baked clay. Majority of them are hand-modelled. 
   • Both male and female figurines are found, the later being more common. 
   • Also terracotta figurines of a range of birds and animals, including monkeys, dogs, sheep and cattle are seen, Both humped and humpless bulls are found; the pride of place seemingly going to the great humpless bulls.
3.  Hence option (d) is the correct answer

1. The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as nagara. Most of the nagara temples were built on the stone platform with steps leading up to it, whereas the temples in south India have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. 
2. Depending on the shape of the shikhara, the nagara temples are sub-divided as the Latina type, phamsana type and the valabhi type. 
3. The important temples belonging to the nagara style are: 
   • Sun temple, Konark o Dashavatara Vishnu temple, Deogarh
   • Vishwanatha temple and Laxman temple, Khajuraho
   • Sun temple, Modhera, etc. Hence options 1 and 2 are correct.
4. Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi in the Ballari district of Karnataka, India. It is part of the Group of Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temple is dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, a form of Shiva.The Virupaksha temple is a Dravida style temple. Hence option 3 is not correct.

• Alauddin Khilji maintained a strong and huge standing army to safeguard his empire. 
• He introduced the system of branding of horses (dagh) and maintenance of the descriptive register of soldiers to prevent false musters and corrupt practices. Hence option (c) is correct. 
• Alauddin abolished the Jagir system and paid the salaries in cash to soldiers. o He fixed the pay of soldiers at 234 tankas a year, with an additional 78 tankas for a soldier maintaining two horses.
• Ariz-i-Mumalik was in charge of the appointment of soldiers. 
• Alauddin Khilji introduced the scientific method of measurement of land for the assessment of land revenue. He was the first sultan to realize land revenue after the assessment of land and measurement of land under cultivation. The post of a special officer called “Mustakhraj” was created to collect land revenue from peasants in doab area and khalisa lands. 
• The sultan deprived the Khuts, Maqaddams, and Chaudhuris of their privileges. They were forced to pay land revenue and other peasants were taxed. Khuts were large landowners and Muqaddams were village headmen. They were given task to collect taxes in iqta lands and often given privilege to not pay any land revenue by the earlier sultans. Hence option (b) is not correct. 
• He took steps to safeguard the peasants from the demands of corrupt revenue officials by imposing strict punishments even for petty offences. 
• He imposed heavy taxes on the Sardars, Jagidars and Ulemas.

• Neolithic Age: We find the first reference of pottery in this age which is hand-made pottery but during the later period footwheel was also used. During this period unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface was found. It was handmade coarse grey pottery. The material used was clay mixed with mica and sand. The Pottery was devoid of any painting. Whereas, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) is a 4th millennium BC to 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, extending from eastern Punjab to northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh. Hence pair 2 is not correctly matched. 
• The Rig Vedic sites have Painted Grey Ware (PGW) but iron objects and cereals are absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. On the other hand, the later Vedic sites are considered iron-phase of PGW. The later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery—black-and-red ware, blackslipped ware, Painted Grey Ware, and red-ware. The red-ware type of pottery was the most popular, and is found almost all over western UP. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched. 
• The pottery of various design motifs in different shapes and styles evolved in the Indus Valley region. The Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was made glossy and shining. The pots were mostly used for storage, cooking and drinking, etc. In the Indus Valley, the potters wheel was in full swing and the pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel-made wares, very few being hand-made.
  1. The Plain pottery is more common than painted ware and it was generally made up of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs. 
  2. The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip-on in which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint. is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns in red, black and green, rarely white and yellow. 
  3. The little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were probably considered precious, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are found mostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and none have been found till date from other settlements like Kalibangan. 
• The pottery associated with the Mauryan period consists of many types of ware. But the most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), which was the hallmark of the preceding and early Mauryan periods. Hence, pair 3 is not correctly matched.

• The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called rashtras under the control of rashtrapatis. They were further divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis. The next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of bhogapatis. These officers were directly appointed by the central government. 
• Statement 1 is correct: The village administration was carried on by the village headmen and village accountants whose posts were generally hereditary. However, the village assemblies played a significant role in the village administration. They were paid by grants of rent-free land 
• An important feature of the period was the rise in the Deccan of hereditary revenue officers called navgavundas or desa-gramamuktas They appear to have the same functions as the deshmukhs and deshpandes of the later times. 
• Statement 2 is not correct: The rise of hereditary elements led to village communities and committees becoming weaker. The central ruler also found it difficult to assert his authority over them and control them. This is what led to feudalism of government. 

• Although terms like Nishka and sathamana found in vedic texts are taken to be names of coins, but coins actually found are not earlier than the 6th century B.C. 
• Coins made of metal first appear in the age of Buddha (Buddha was born in the 6th century B.C., or possibly as early as 624 B.C., according to some scholars. Other researchers believe he was born later, even as late as 448 B.C. And some Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha lived from 563 B.C. to 483 B.C). They are called Punch-marked because pieces of these metals were punched with certain marks such as hills, trees, fish etc., The pali texts indicate plentiful use of these coins that wages , prices and taxes were paid in it. 
• The discovery of many hoards of punch-marked coins suggest that the payment of taxes was made both in cash and kind. Artisans and Traders also had to pay taxes. Separate officers called Sulkadhyaksha were appointed to collect these tolls. 
• Although no rural settlements of pre-mauryan times were excavated , it is obvious that without strong rural base, one cannot think of beginning of crafts, commerce adn urbanisation in the middle gangetic basin. Specialized craftsmen tended to form guilds because it facilitated carriage of raw materials and the distribution of finished articles. At least 18 guilds or srenis of artisans were known and functional. 
• However, the guild was not the highly developed mercantile system that it was to become later. Each guild inhabited a particular section of the town. 
• The use of the term for transplantation is found in Pali and sanskrit texts of the period indicating large scale use of this technique during the times of Buddha. It enormously added to the yield. 
• Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

• There is a verse in Nadistuti sukta of Rigveda , hymn of praise of rivers which mentions the following 10 rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Marudvrdha , Vitasta , Arjikiya , Susoma.
  
  • Hence only pairs 2 and 3 are correctly matched.

• Situated about 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in Maharashtra, the rock-cut cave Kailasha temple of Ellora is the largest monolithic structure in the world. It is believed that the Kailash Temple at Ellora has striking similarities to the Virupaksha temple of northern Karnataka. Hence statement 1 is correct. 
• The famous Kailasa temple at Ellora is in a class by itself because it is a rock-cut temple complex, which in many respects resembles the various rathas at Mahabalipuram. This temple was constructed during the reign of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna and belongs to the middle of the 8th century A.D. Hence statement 3 is correct. 
• The carvers at Ellora cut three trenches down into the rock and then began to carve the rock from the top downwards. Even though it is carved on the model of a structural temple, the Kailashnath temple is a rock-cut shrine within a rectangular court. The different parts of the temple are the entrance portico, the vimana, and the mandapa as well as a pillared shrine for Shiva's bull, Nandi. 
• Both inside as well as outside the temple, there are beautiful, graceful, and dignified sculptural decorations, largely pertaining to the theme of Shiva and Parvati, Sita's abduction, and Ravana shaking the mountain. 
• The large panel of Sheshashayi Vishnu is found in the Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh, U.P.), representing the Supreme being slumbering wakefully on the serpent Ananta, the symbol of eternity, in the interval between the dissolution of the universe and its new creation, is a magnificent example of Gupta art.

Hence statement 2 is not correct. 

• Charvaka was the main expounder of materialistic philosophy. This philosophy came to be known as the Lokayata, which means the ideas derived from common people. 
• It underlined the importance of intimate contact with the world (loka), and showed lack of belief in the other world. 
• He opposed the quest for spiritual salvation. He denied the existence of any divine or supernatural agency. He accepted the existence/reality of only those things which could be experienced by human senses and organs. This implied a clear lack of faith in the existence of brahma and God.

Hence option (c) is the correct answer.

Foreign Invasions of Northwest India: 

1. Bactrians:
   • Menander, the fampus among Indo-Greek rulers , was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialkot).
   • He evinced much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). He also embraced Buddhism. Hence option (d) is not correct. 
2. Sakas:
   • Also known as Scythians. There were two different groups of Sakas – the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps ruling over Maharashtr
   • The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I. Hence option (a) is not correct. 
3. Parthians:
   • These were kings of Iranian origin. 
4. They too ruled over different pockets of North India. Their rule coincided with the Sakas.
   • The Parthian state had a scarcity of silver coins and this testifies to the economic conditions of the empire. 
   • St Thomas, the apostle due to whom the country came into contact with Christianity came to the court of Indo-Parthian king Gondophernes. Hence, option (c) is the correct answer. 
5. Kushanas: 
   • Kushanas were a branch of the Yuchi tribe, whose original home was central Asia. 
   • First came to Bactria displacing the Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara region. 
   • Founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I, he occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins in his name. Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.) was the successor of Kadphises.

Hence option (b) is not correct.

• Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms. He stopped sati, the burning of a widow, unless she herself, of her own free will, persistently desired it. Widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. He prohibited only the cases where women were forced to perform sati. Hence, statement 1 is not correct. 
• Widow remarriage was also legalised. Akbar was against anyone having more than one wife unless the first wife was barren. The age of marriage was raised to 14 for girls and 16 for boys. The sale of wines and spirits was restricted. Hence, statement 2 is correct. 
• Akbar also revised the educational syllabus, laying more emphasis on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects such as agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc. Hence, statement 3 is correct. 
• He also gave patronage to artists, poets, painters and musicians, so much so that his court became famous for the galaxy of renowned people known as the navaratna. 
• Thus, under Akbar, the state became essentially secular, liberal and enlightened in social matters and a promoter of cultural integration.

• Zamindars were landed proprietors who enjoyed certain social and economic privileges by virtue of their superior status in rural society. Caste was one factor that accounted for the elevated status of zamindars. 
• The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour. The zamindars could sell, bequeath or mortgage these lands at will. 
• In addition to owning the lands they cultivated, the zamindars had the hereditary right of collecting land revenue from a number of villages. This was called his talluqa or his zamindari. For collecting the land revenue, the zamindars received a share of the land revenue which could go up to 25 per cent in some areas. 
• Hence, statement 1 is correct. 
• The zamindar was not the ‘owner’ of all the lands comprising his zamindari. The peasants who actually cultivated the land could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the land revenue. Thus, the zamindars and the peasants had their own hereditary rights in land. Hence, statement 2 is not correct. 
• Control over military resources was another source of power for the zamindars. Most zamindars had fortresses (qilachas) as well as an armed contingent comprising units of cavalry, artillery and infantry. Hence, statement 3 is not correct

Rahat: Wheel used in irrigation to lift water from deep wells in North India. It was an improved form of 'Araghatta' i.e. wheel used in irrigation in ancient and medieval times. These types of wheels were widely used in the Delhi Sultanate & Mughal Era.

• The birth of the Carnatic Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - at Tiruvarur between the years 1750 to 1850 A.D. ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music. The Trinity were not only contemporaries among themselves but, also contemporaries of great composers of Western Music. 
• Pampa, Ponna and Rana are known as the "three gems of ancient Kannada literature". 
• Nannaya, Thikkana and Eranna are famously known as " Kavitrayam " which means trinity of poets .These poets translated the great epic Mahabharata into Telugu. 
• Sundarar, Sambandar, Appar three most prominent Tamil poets of the 7th and 8th centuries whose works constitute Thevaram , the first seven volumes of Tirumurai a Śaiva devotional poetry. 
• Hence, option (b) is the correct answer

• Pandavani, Chhattisgarh: In Pandavani, tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two episodes are chosen for the night’s performance. The main singer continuously sits throughout the performance and with powerful singing and symbolic gestures he assumes all the characters of the episode one after another. 
• Hence option (d) is the correct answer. 
• Laman, Himachal Pradesh: In Laman, a group of girls sing a stanza and a group of boys give a reply in the song. This continues for hours. Interesting is that the girls singing on one of the peaks of the hill seldom see the faces of the boys singing on another peak. In between is the hill which echoes their love song. Most of these songs are sung especially in Kullu Valley. 
• Mando, Goa: Goan regional music is a treasury of the traditional music of the Indian subcontinent. Mando, the finest creation of Goan song is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and both social injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in Goa. 
• Villu Pattu, Tamil Nadu which translates to " bow song ", is a popular folk music of Tamil Nadu. The lead singer also plays the role of the main performer. He also handles the dominating instrument which is bow shaped. The songs revolve around theological themes and the conquest of good over evil is emphasised.

• The Hoysalas South Indian dynasty who asserted themselves in the Mysore region about the beginning of the 12th century. The temples they built at Halebid and Belur look like lace work in stone. The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body. Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold. 
• A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain Goverdhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra, who let loose torrential rains to teach them a lesson for their insolence, in paying homage to Mount Govardhana instead of worshipping him. The Mountain with its forest and animal kingdom is held aloft by the youthful Krishna on his left hand, sheltering the entire population of Gokul, including the cows. 
• Chalukyas - It was a Classical Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties i.e Badami Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukyas and Western Chalukyas. The kings of this dynasty were called Umapati Varlabdh and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva. The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural. 
• Rashtrakutas -They ruled the large parts of peninsular India between the sixth and 10th centuries. Their contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta. They renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple. 
• Vijayanagara – It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles , which evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas. Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or monumental towers adorned with life size figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the entrance of the temple.The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches , domes , and vaults. 
• Some famous temples of Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I. 

• Jizya or Jizyah is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on permanent non-Muslim subjects (dhimmi) of a state governed by Islamic law in order to fund public expenditures of the state, in place of the Zakat and Khums that Muslims are obliged to pay. Hence statement 1 is correct. 
• This was paid on a graduated scale according to means, women, children and the indigent who had insufficient means being exempt from it. 
• The brahamans also remained exempt, though this was not provided for in the Muslim law. This changed in the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq where he levied that on brahmins too. Hence statement 3 is correct. 
• At first, Jizyah was collected along with land revenue. In fact it was difficult to distinguish jizyah from land revenue since all the cultivators were Hindu. 
• Later, Firoz Shah Tughlaq made Jizyah a separate tax. Hence statement 2 is not correct.

1. Nanda dynasty (344 BC-322 BC): This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. 
2. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the throne of Kalasoka. 
3. Mahapadma Nanda: 
   • He is called the “first historical emperor of India.” 
   • He murdered Kalasoka to become the king. o His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC. 
   • He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and “Ekrat”. 
   • The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada in the west.He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga. 
4. Dhana Nanda: 
   • He was the last Nanda ruler. 
   • He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts. 
   • Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.  Hence, statement 1 is correct. 
5. He inherited a huge empire from his father. According to Pliny, Roman writer, he possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a powerful ruler because of this. Hence, statement 3 is correct. 
6. He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda. 
7. He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes. Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies.
8. Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya, which led to the foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha. 
9. Hence, statement 2 is correct.