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 Page 1


Tribals, Dikus and the  
Vision of a Golden Age
4
In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and 
villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had 
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply 
grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him 
to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery 
of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, 
believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve 
all their problems.
Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group 
that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included 
other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of 
them in different ways were unhappy with the changes 
they were experiencing and the problems they were facing 
under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be 
disappearing, their livelihoods were under 
threat, and their religion appeared to be  
in danger. 
What problems did Birsa set out to resolve? 
Who were the outsiders being referred to as 
dikus, and how did they enslave the people of 
the region? What was happening to the tribal 
people under the British? How did their lives 
change? These are some of the questions you 
will read about in this chapter.
You have read about tribal societies last 
year. Most tribes had customs and rituals 
that were very different from those laid 
down by Brahmans. These societies also 
did not have the sharp social divisions 
that were characteristic of caste societies. 
All those who belonged to the same tribe  
thought of themselves as sharing common 
ties of kinship. However, this did not mean 
that there were no social and economic 
differences within tribes.
Fig. 1 – Women of the 
Dongria Kandha tribe 
in Orissa wade through  
the river on the way to 
the market
chap 1-4.indd   39 4/22/2022   2:50:04 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 2


Tribals, Dikus and the  
Vision of a Golden Age
4
In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and 
villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had 
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply 
grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him 
to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery 
of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, 
believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve 
all their problems.
Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group 
that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included 
other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of 
them in different ways were unhappy with the changes 
they were experiencing and the problems they were facing 
under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be 
disappearing, their livelihoods were under 
threat, and their religion appeared to be  
in danger. 
What problems did Birsa set out to resolve? 
Who were the outsiders being referred to as 
dikus, and how did they enslave the people of 
the region? What was happening to the tribal 
people under the British? How did their lives 
change? These are some of the questions you 
will read about in this chapter.
You have read about tribal societies last 
year. Most tribes had customs and rituals 
that were very different from those laid 
down by Brahmans. These societies also 
did not have the sharp social divisions 
that were characteristic of caste societies. 
All those who belonged to the same tribe  
thought of themselves as sharing common 
ties of kinship. However, this did not mean 
that there were no social and economic 
differences within tribes.
Fig. 1 – Women of the 
Dongria Kandha tribe 
in Orissa wade through  
the river on the way to 
the market
chap 1-4.indd   39 4/22/2022   2:50:04 PM
Reprint 2024-25
40 OUR PASTS – III
How did Tribal Groups Live?
By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts 
of India were involved in a variety of activities. 
Some were jhum cultivators
Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting 
cultivation. This was done on small patches of land, mostly 
in forests. The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight 
to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land 
to clear it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the 
firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. They 
used the axe to cut trees and the hoe to scratch the soil 
in order to prepare it for cultivation. They broadcast the 
seeds, that is, scattered the seeds on the field instead of 
ploughing the land  and sowing the seeds. Once the crop 
was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. 
A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for 
several years, 
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested 
tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of  these 
tribal people depended on free movement within forests 
and on being able to use the land and forests for growing 
their crops. That is the only way they could practise 
shifting cultivation.  
Some were hunters and gatherers
In many regions, tribal groups lived by hunting 
animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests 
as essential for survival. The Khonds were such a 
community living in the forests of Orissa. They regularly 
went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat 
amongst themselves. 
They ate fruits and roots 
collected from the forest 
and cooked food with the 
oil they extracted from 
the seeds of the sal and 
mahua. They used many 
forest shrubs and herbs  
for medicinal purposes, 
and sold forest produce 
in the local markets. The 
local weavers and leather 
workers turned to the 
Khonds when they needed 
supplies of kusum and 
palash flowers to colour 
their clothes and leather.
Fallow – A field left 
uncultivated for a while 
so that the soil recovers 
fertility
Sal – A tree
Mahua – A flower that 
is eaten or used to make 
alcohol
Fig. 2 – Dongria Kandha women 
in Orissa take home pandanus 
leaves from the forest to make 
plates
chap 1-4.indd   40 4/22/2022   2:50:05 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 3


Tribals, Dikus and the  
Vision of a Golden Age
4
In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and 
villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had 
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply 
grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him 
to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery 
of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, 
believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve 
all their problems.
Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group 
that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included 
other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of 
them in different ways were unhappy with the changes 
they were experiencing and the problems they were facing 
under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be 
disappearing, their livelihoods were under 
threat, and their religion appeared to be  
in danger. 
What problems did Birsa set out to resolve? 
Who were the outsiders being referred to as 
dikus, and how did they enslave the people of 
the region? What was happening to the tribal 
people under the British? How did their lives 
change? These are some of the questions you 
will read about in this chapter.
You have read about tribal societies last 
year. Most tribes had customs and rituals 
that were very different from those laid 
down by Brahmans. These societies also 
did not have the sharp social divisions 
that were characteristic of caste societies. 
All those who belonged to the same tribe  
thought of themselves as sharing common 
ties of kinship. However, this did not mean 
that there were no social and economic 
differences within tribes.
Fig. 1 – Women of the 
Dongria Kandha tribe 
in Orissa wade through  
the river on the way to 
the market
chap 1-4.indd   39 4/22/2022   2:50:04 PM
Reprint 2024-25
40 OUR PASTS – III
How did Tribal Groups Live?
By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts 
of India were involved in a variety of activities. 
Some were jhum cultivators
Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting 
cultivation. This was done on small patches of land, mostly 
in forests. The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight 
to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land 
to clear it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the 
firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. They 
used the axe to cut trees and the hoe to scratch the soil 
in order to prepare it for cultivation. They broadcast the 
seeds, that is, scattered the seeds on the field instead of 
ploughing the land  and sowing the seeds. Once the crop 
was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. 
A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for 
several years, 
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested 
tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of  these 
tribal people depended on free movement within forests 
and on being able to use the land and forests for growing 
their crops. That is the only way they could practise 
shifting cultivation.  
Some were hunters and gatherers
In many regions, tribal groups lived by hunting 
animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests 
as essential for survival. The Khonds were such a 
community living in the forests of Orissa. They regularly 
went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat 
amongst themselves. 
They ate fruits and roots 
collected from the forest 
and cooked food with the 
oil they extracted from 
the seeds of the sal and 
mahua. They used many 
forest shrubs and herbs  
for medicinal purposes, 
and sold forest produce 
in the local markets. The 
local weavers and leather 
workers turned to the 
Khonds when they needed 
supplies of kusum and 
palash flowers to colour 
their clothes and leather.
Fallow – A field left 
uncultivated for a while 
so that the soil recovers 
fertility
Sal – A tree
Mahua – A flower that 
is eaten or used to make 
alcohol
Fig. 2 – Dongria Kandha women 
in Orissa take home pandanus 
leaves from the forest to make 
plates
chap 1-4.indd   40 4/22/2022   2:50:05 PM
Reprint 2024-25
 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE          41
From where did these forest 
people get their supplies of rice 
and other grains? At times they 
exchanged goods – getting what 
they needed in return for their 
valuable forest produce. At other 
times, they bought goods with the 
small amount of earnings they 
had. Some of them did odd jobs 
in the villages, carrying loads 
or building roads, while others 
laboured in the fields of peasants 
and farmers. When supplies of 
forest produce shrank, tribal 
people had to increasingly wander 
around in search of work as 
labourers. But many of them – like 
the Baigas of central India – were 
reluctant to do work for others. 
The Baigas saw themselves as 
people of the forest, who could 
only live on the produce of the 
forest. It was below the dignity of 
a Baiga to become a labourer. 
Tribal groups often needed 
to buy and sell in order to be 
able to get the goods that were 
not produced within the locality. This led to their 
dependence on traders and moneylenders. Traders came 
around with things for sale, and sold the goods at high 
prices. Moneylenders gave loans with which the tribals 
met their cash needs, adding to what they earned. But 
the interest charged on the loans was usually very 
high. So for the tribals, market and commerce often 
meant debt and poverty. They therefore came to see 
the moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the 
cause of their misery. 
Some herded animals
Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. 
They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of 
cattle or sheep according to the seasons.  When the grass 
in one place was exhausted, they moved to another area. 
The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of 
Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu 
were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared 
goats. You will read more about them in your history 
book next year.
Fig. 3 – Location of some tribal 
groups in India
chap 1-4.indd   41 4/22/2022   2:50:06 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 4


Tribals, Dikus and the  
Vision of a Golden Age
4
In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and 
villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had 
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply 
grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him 
to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery 
of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, 
believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve 
all their problems.
Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group 
that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included 
other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of 
them in different ways were unhappy with the changes 
they were experiencing and the problems they were facing 
under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be 
disappearing, their livelihoods were under 
threat, and their religion appeared to be  
in danger. 
What problems did Birsa set out to resolve? 
Who were the outsiders being referred to as 
dikus, and how did they enslave the people of 
the region? What was happening to the tribal 
people under the British? How did their lives 
change? These are some of the questions you 
will read about in this chapter.
You have read about tribal societies last 
year. Most tribes had customs and rituals 
that were very different from those laid 
down by Brahmans. These societies also 
did not have the sharp social divisions 
that were characteristic of caste societies. 
All those who belonged to the same tribe  
thought of themselves as sharing common 
ties of kinship. However, this did not mean 
that there were no social and economic 
differences within tribes.
Fig. 1 – Women of the 
Dongria Kandha tribe 
in Orissa wade through  
the river on the way to 
the market
chap 1-4.indd   39 4/22/2022   2:50:04 PM
Reprint 2024-25
40 OUR PASTS – III
How did Tribal Groups Live?
By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts 
of India were involved in a variety of activities. 
Some were jhum cultivators
Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting 
cultivation. This was done on small patches of land, mostly 
in forests. The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight 
to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land 
to clear it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the 
firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. They 
used the axe to cut trees and the hoe to scratch the soil 
in order to prepare it for cultivation. They broadcast the 
seeds, that is, scattered the seeds on the field instead of 
ploughing the land  and sowing the seeds. Once the crop 
was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. 
A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for 
several years, 
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested 
tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of  these 
tribal people depended on free movement within forests 
and on being able to use the land and forests for growing 
their crops. That is the only way they could practise 
shifting cultivation.  
Some were hunters and gatherers
In many regions, tribal groups lived by hunting 
animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests 
as essential for survival. The Khonds were such a 
community living in the forests of Orissa. They regularly 
went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat 
amongst themselves. 
They ate fruits and roots 
collected from the forest 
and cooked food with the 
oil they extracted from 
the seeds of the sal and 
mahua. They used many 
forest shrubs and herbs  
for medicinal purposes, 
and sold forest produce 
in the local markets. The 
local weavers and leather 
workers turned to the 
Khonds when they needed 
supplies of kusum and 
palash flowers to colour 
their clothes and leather.
Fallow – A field left 
uncultivated for a while 
so that the soil recovers 
fertility
Sal – A tree
Mahua – A flower that 
is eaten or used to make 
alcohol
Fig. 2 – Dongria Kandha women 
in Orissa take home pandanus 
leaves from the forest to make 
plates
chap 1-4.indd   40 4/22/2022   2:50:05 PM
Reprint 2024-25
 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE          41
From where did these forest 
people get their supplies of rice 
and other grains? At times they 
exchanged goods – getting what 
they needed in return for their 
valuable forest produce. At other 
times, they bought goods with the 
small amount of earnings they 
had. Some of them did odd jobs 
in the villages, carrying loads 
or building roads, while others 
laboured in the fields of peasants 
and farmers. When supplies of 
forest produce shrank, tribal 
people had to increasingly wander 
around in search of work as 
labourers. But many of them – like 
the Baigas of central India – were 
reluctant to do work for others. 
The Baigas saw themselves as 
people of the forest, who could 
only live on the produce of the 
forest. It was below the dignity of 
a Baiga to become a labourer. 
Tribal groups often needed 
to buy and sell in order to be 
able to get the goods that were 
not produced within the locality. This led to their 
dependence on traders and moneylenders. Traders came 
around with things for sale, and sold the goods at high 
prices. Moneylenders gave loans with which the tribals 
met their cash needs, adding to what they earned. But 
the interest charged on the loans was usually very 
high. So for the tribals, market and commerce often 
meant debt and poverty. They therefore came to see 
the moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the 
cause of their misery. 
Some herded animals
Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. 
They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of 
cattle or sheep according to the seasons.  When the grass 
in one place was exhausted, they moved to another area. 
The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of 
Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu 
were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared 
goats. You will read more about them in your history 
book next year.
Fig. 3 – Location of some tribal 
groups in India
chap 1-4.indd   41 4/22/2022   2:50:06 PM
Reprint 2024-25
42 OUR PASTS – III
A time to hunt, a time to sow, a time to move to a new field
Have you ever noticed that people living in different types of societies do not 
share the same notion of work and time? The lives of the shifting cultivators and 
hunters in different regions were regulated by a calendar and division of tasks 
for men and women. 
Verrier Elwin, a British anthropologist who lived among the Baigas and Khonds 
of central India for many years in the 1930s and 1940s, gives us a picture of what 
this calendar and division of tasks was like. He writes:  
In Chait women went to clearings to ... cut stalks that were already reaped; 
men cut large trees and go for their ritual hunt. The hunt began at full 
moon from the east. Traps of bamboo were used for hunting. The women 
gathered fruits like sago, tamarind and mushroom. Baiga women can only 
gather roots or kanda and mahua seeds. Of all the adivasis in  Central India, the 
Baigas were known as the best hunters … In Baisakh the firing of the forest 
took place, the women gathered unburnt wood to burn. Men continued 
to hunt, but nearer their villages. In Jeth sowing took place and hunting 
still went on. From Asadh to Bhadon the men worked in the fields. In Kuar 
the first fruits of beans were ripened and in Kartik kutki became ripe. In 
Aghan every crop was ready and in Pus winnowing took place. Pus was also 
the time for dances and marriages. In 
Magh shifts were made to new bewars 
and hunting-gathering was the main 
subsistence activity. 
The cycle described above took 
place in the first year. In the second 
year there was more time for hunting 
as only a few crops had to be sown 
and harvested. But since there was 
enough food the men lived in the 
bewars. It was only in the third year 
that the diet had to be supplemented 
with the forest products.
Adapted from Verrier Elwin, Baiga (1939) and Elwin’s 
unpublished ‘Notes on the Khonds’ (Verrier Elwin 
Papers, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library)
Source 1
Fig. 4 – A Santhal girl carrying firewood, 
Bihar, 1946
Children go with their mothers to the forest 
to gather forest produce.
?
Activity
Look carefully at the tasks that Baiga 
men and women did. Do you see any 
pattern? What were the differences 
in the types of work that they were 
expected to perform? 
chap 1-4.indd   42 4/22/2022   2:50:08 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 5


Tribals, Dikus and the  
Vision of a Golden Age
4
In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and 
villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had 
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply 
grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him 
to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery 
of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, 
believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve 
all their problems.
Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group 
that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included 
other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of 
them in different ways were unhappy with the changes 
they were experiencing and the problems they were facing 
under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be 
disappearing, their livelihoods were under 
threat, and their religion appeared to be  
in danger. 
What problems did Birsa set out to resolve? 
Who were the outsiders being referred to as 
dikus, and how did they enslave the people of 
the region? What was happening to the tribal 
people under the British? How did their lives 
change? These are some of the questions you 
will read about in this chapter.
You have read about tribal societies last 
year. Most tribes had customs and rituals 
that were very different from those laid 
down by Brahmans. These societies also 
did not have the sharp social divisions 
that were characteristic of caste societies. 
All those who belonged to the same tribe  
thought of themselves as sharing common 
ties of kinship. However, this did not mean 
that there were no social and economic 
differences within tribes.
Fig. 1 – Women of the 
Dongria Kandha tribe 
in Orissa wade through  
the river on the way to 
the market
chap 1-4.indd   39 4/22/2022   2:50:04 PM
Reprint 2024-25
40 OUR PASTS – III
How did Tribal Groups Live?
By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts 
of India were involved in a variety of activities. 
Some were jhum cultivators
Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting 
cultivation. This was done on small patches of land, mostly 
in forests. The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight 
to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land 
to clear it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the 
firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. They 
used the axe to cut trees and the hoe to scratch the soil 
in order to prepare it for cultivation. They broadcast the 
seeds, that is, scattered the seeds on the field instead of 
ploughing the land  and sowing the seeds. Once the crop 
was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. 
A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for 
several years, 
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested 
tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of  these 
tribal people depended on free movement within forests 
and on being able to use the land and forests for growing 
their crops. That is the only way they could practise 
shifting cultivation.  
Some were hunters and gatherers
In many regions, tribal groups lived by hunting 
animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests 
as essential for survival. The Khonds were such a 
community living in the forests of Orissa. They regularly 
went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat 
amongst themselves. 
They ate fruits and roots 
collected from the forest 
and cooked food with the 
oil they extracted from 
the seeds of the sal and 
mahua. They used many 
forest shrubs and herbs  
for medicinal purposes, 
and sold forest produce 
in the local markets. The 
local weavers and leather 
workers turned to the 
Khonds when they needed 
supplies of kusum and 
palash flowers to colour 
their clothes and leather.
Fallow – A field left 
uncultivated for a while 
so that the soil recovers 
fertility
Sal – A tree
Mahua – A flower that 
is eaten or used to make 
alcohol
Fig. 2 – Dongria Kandha women 
in Orissa take home pandanus 
leaves from the forest to make 
plates
chap 1-4.indd   40 4/22/2022   2:50:05 PM
Reprint 2024-25
 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE          41
From where did these forest 
people get their supplies of rice 
and other grains? At times they 
exchanged goods – getting what 
they needed in return for their 
valuable forest produce. At other 
times, they bought goods with the 
small amount of earnings they 
had. Some of them did odd jobs 
in the villages, carrying loads 
or building roads, while others 
laboured in the fields of peasants 
and farmers. When supplies of 
forest produce shrank, tribal 
people had to increasingly wander 
around in search of work as 
labourers. But many of them – like 
the Baigas of central India – were 
reluctant to do work for others. 
The Baigas saw themselves as 
people of the forest, who could 
only live on the produce of the 
forest. It was below the dignity of 
a Baiga to become a labourer. 
Tribal groups often needed 
to buy and sell in order to be 
able to get the goods that were 
not produced within the locality. This led to their 
dependence on traders and moneylenders. Traders came 
around with things for sale, and sold the goods at high 
prices. Moneylenders gave loans with which the tribals 
met their cash needs, adding to what they earned. But 
the interest charged on the loans was usually very 
high. So for the tribals, market and commerce often 
meant debt and poverty. They therefore came to see 
the moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the 
cause of their misery. 
Some herded animals
Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. 
They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of 
cattle or sheep according to the seasons.  When the grass 
in one place was exhausted, they moved to another area. 
The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of 
Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu 
were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared 
goats. You will read more about them in your history 
book next year.
Fig. 3 – Location of some tribal 
groups in India
chap 1-4.indd   41 4/22/2022   2:50:06 PM
Reprint 2024-25
42 OUR PASTS – III
A time to hunt, a time to sow, a time to move to a new field
Have you ever noticed that people living in different types of societies do not 
share the same notion of work and time? The lives of the shifting cultivators and 
hunters in different regions were regulated by a calendar and division of tasks 
for men and women. 
Verrier Elwin, a British anthropologist who lived among the Baigas and Khonds 
of central India for many years in the 1930s and 1940s, gives us a picture of what 
this calendar and division of tasks was like. He writes:  
In Chait women went to clearings to ... cut stalks that were already reaped; 
men cut large trees and go for their ritual hunt. The hunt began at full 
moon from the east. Traps of bamboo were used for hunting. The women 
gathered fruits like sago, tamarind and mushroom. Baiga women can only 
gather roots or kanda and mahua seeds. Of all the adivasis in  Central India, the 
Baigas were known as the best hunters … In Baisakh the firing of the forest 
took place, the women gathered unburnt wood to burn. Men continued 
to hunt, but nearer their villages. In Jeth sowing took place and hunting 
still went on. From Asadh to Bhadon the men worked in the fields. In Kuar 
the first fruits of beans were ripened and in Kartik kutki became ripe. In 
Aghan every crop was ready and in Pus winnowing took place. Pus was also 
the time for dances and marriages. In 
Magh shifts were made to new bewars 
and hunting-gathering was the main 
subsistence activity. 
The cycle described above took 
place in the first year. In the second 
year there was more time for hunting 
as only a few crops had to be sown 
and harvested. But since there was 
enough food the men lived in the 
bewars. It was only in the third year 
that the diet had to be supplemented 
with the forest products.
Adapted from Verrier Elwin, Baiga (1939) and Elwin’s 
unpublished ‘Notes on the Khonds’ (Verrier Elwin 
Papers, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library)
Source 1
Fig. 4 – A Santhal girl carrying firewood, 
Bihar, 1946
Children go with their mothers to the forest 
to gather forest produce.
?
Activity
Look carefully at the tasks that Baiga 
men and women did. Do you see any 
pattern? What were the differences 
in the types of work that they were 
expected to perform? 
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 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE          43
Some took to settled cultivation
Even before the nineteenth century, many from within 
the tribal groups had begun settling  down, and 
cultivating their fields in one place year after year, 
instead of moving from place to place. They began 
to use the plough, and gradually got rights over the 
land they lived on. In many cases, like the Mundas of 
Chottanagpur, the land belonged to the clan as a whole. 
All members of the clan were regarded as descendants 
of the original settlers, who had first cleared the land. 
Therefore, all of them had rights on the land. Very 
often some people within the clan acquired more power 
than others, some became chiefs and others followers. 
Powerful men often rented out their land instead of 
cultivating it themselves.
British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds 
and Santhals as more civilised than hunter-gatherers or 
shifting cultivators. Those who lived in the forests were 
considered to be wild and savage: they needed to be settled 
and civilised. 
How did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal 
Lives?
The lives of tribal groups changed during British rule. Let 
us see what these changes were.
What happened to tribal chiefs?
Before the arrival of the British, in many areas the tribal 
chiefs were important people. They enjoyed a certain 
amount of economic power and had the right to administer 
and control their territories. In some places they had 
their own police and decided on the local rules of land 
and forest management. Under British rule, the functions 
and powers of the tribal chiefs changed considerably. 
They were allowed to keep their land titles over a cluster 
of villages and rent out lands, but they lost much of their 
administrative power and were forced to follow laws made 
by British officials in India. They also had to pay tribute 
to the British, and discipline the tribal groups on behalf 
of the British. They lost the authority they had earlier 
enjoyed amongst their people, and were unable to fulfil 
their traditional functions.
What happened to the shifting cultivators?
The British were uncomfortable with groups who moved 
about and did not have a fixed home. They wanted tribal 
Bewar – A term used           
in Madhya Pradesh for 
shifting cultivation
Fig. 5 – A log house being built 
in a village of the Nyishi tribes of  
Arunachal Pradesh.
The entire village helps when log 
huts are built.
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