Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

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Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.

On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systems—an indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.

This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.

The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making – connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessor’s processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the
brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.

Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?

a)
A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.
b)
A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.
c)
A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.
d)
A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.
e)
A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. © 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of Use

Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

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Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.The passage suggests that the modern microprocessor is more efficient because

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Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.In paragraph 4 - lines 1 and 2, the author talks about the brain being a glutton forfuel to

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Directions: Read the Passage carefully and answer the question as follow.Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee, has been called“the most widely used psychoactive substance on Earth .”Synder, Daly and Bruns have recently proposed thatcaffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in(5) the human brain of a naturally occurring chemical calledadenosine. Adenosine normally depresses neuron firingin many areas of the brain. It apparently does this byinhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, chemicalsthat carry nerve impulses from one neuron to the next.(10) Like many other agents that affect neuron firing,adenosine must first bind to specific receptors onneuronal membranes. There are at least two classesof these receptors, which have been designated A1 andA2. Snyder et al propose that caffeine, which is struc-(15) turally similar to adenosine, is able to bind to both typesof receptors, which prevents adenosine from attachingthere and allows the neurons to fire more readily thanthey otherwise would.For many years, caffeine’s effects have been attri-(20) buted to its inhibition of the production of phosphodi-esterase, an enzyme that breaks down the chemicalcalled cyclic AMP.A number of neurotransmitters exerttheir effects by first increasing cyclic AMP concentra-tions in target neurons. Therefore, prolonged periods at(25) the elevated concentrations, as might be brought aboutby a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, could lead to a greateramount of neuron firing and, consequently, to behav-ioral stimulation. But Snyder et al point out that thecaffeine concentrations needed to inhibit the production(30) of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher thanthose that produce stimulation. Moreover, other com-pounds that block phosphodiesterase’s activity are notstimulants.To buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by pre-(35) venting adenosine binding, Snyder et al compared thestimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives withtheir ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors inthe brains of mice. “In general,” they reported, “theability of the compounds to compete at the receptors(40) correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion inthe mouse; i.e., the higher their capacity to bind at thereceptors, the higher their ability to stimulate locomo-tion.” Theophylline, a close structural relative of caffeineand the major stimulant in tea, was one of the most(45) effective compounds in both regards.There were some apparent exceptions to the generalcorrelation observed between adenosine-receptor bindingand stimulation. One of these was a compound called3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine(IBMX), which bound very(50) well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyderet al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block totheir hypothesis. The problem is that the compound hasmixed effects in the brain, a not unusual occurrence withpsychoactive drugs. Even caffeine, which is generally(55) known only for its stimulatory effects, displays thisproperty, depressing mouse locomotion at very low concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.Q.According so Snyder et al, caffeine differs from adenosine in that caffeine

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Directions: Read the Passage carefully and answer the question as follow.Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee, has been called“the most widely used psychoactive substance on Earth .”Synder, Daly and Bruns have recently proposed thatcaffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in(5) the human brain of a naturally occurring chemical calledadenosine. Adenosine normally depresses neuron firingin many areas of the brain. It apparently does this byinhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, chemicalsthat carry nerve impulses from one neuron to the next.(10) Like many other agents that affect neuron firing,adenosine must first bind to specific receptors onneuronal membranes. There are at least two classesof these receptors, which have been designated A1 andA2. Snyder et al propose that caffeine, which is struc-(15) turally similar to adenosine, is able to bind to both typesof receptors, which prevents adenosine from attachingthere and allows the neurons to fire more readily thanthey otherwise would.For many years, caffeine’s effects have been attri-(20) buted to its inhibition of the production of phosphodi-esterase, an enzyme that breaks down the chemicalcalled cyclic AMP.A number of neurotransmitters exerttheir effects by first increasing cyclic AMP concentra-tions in target neurons. Therefore, prolonged periods at(25) the elevated concentrations, as might be brought aboutby a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, could lead to a greateramount of neuron firing and, consequently, to behav-ioral stimulation. But Snyder et al point out that thecaffeine concentrations needed to inhibit the production(30) of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher thanthose that produce stimulation. Moreover, other com-pounds that block phosphodiesterase’s activity are notstimulants.To buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by pre-(35) venting adenosine binding, Snyder et al compared thestimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives withtheir ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors inthe brains of mice. “In general,” they reported, “theability of the compounds to compete at the receptors(40) correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion inthe mouse; i.e., the higher their capacity to bind at thereceptors, the higher their ability to stimulate locomo-tion.” Theophylline, a close structural relative of caffeineand the major stimulant in tea, was one of the most(45) effective compounds in both regards.There were some apparent exceptions to the generalcorrelation observed between adenosine-receptor bindingand stimulation. One of these was a compound called3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine(IBMX), which bound very(50) well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyderet al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block totheir hypothesis. The problem is that the compound hasmixed effects in the brain, a not unusual occurrence withpsychoactive drugs. Even caffeine, which is generally(55) known only for its stimulatory effects, displays thisproperty, depressing mouse locomotion at very low concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.Q.According to Snyder et al, all of the following compounds can bind to specific receptors in the brain EXCEPT

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Directions: Read the Passage carefully and answer the question as follow.Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee, has been called“the most widely used psychoactive substance on Earth .”Synder, Daly and Bruns have recently proposed thatcaffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in(5) the human brain of a naturally occurring chemical calledadenosine. Adenosine normally depresses neuron firingin many areas of the brain. It apparently does this byinhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, chemicalsthat carry nerve impulses from one neuron to the next.(10) Like many other agents that affect neuron firing,adenosine must first bind to specific receptors onneuronal membranes. There are at least two classesof these receptors, which have been designated A1 andA2. Snyder et al propose that caffeine, which is struc-(15) turally similar to adenosine, is able to bind to both typesof receptors, which prevents adenosine from attachingthere and allows the neurons to fire more readily thanthey otherwise would.For many years, caffeine’s effects have been attri-(20) buted to its inhibition of the production of phosphodi-esterase, an enzyme that breaks down the chemicalcalled cyclic AMP.A number of neurotransmitters exerttheir effects by first increasing cyclic AMP concentra-tions in target neurons. Therefore, prolonged periods at(25) the elevated concentrations, as might be brought aboutby a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, could lead to a greateramount of neuron firing and, consequently, to behav-ioral stimulation. But Snyder et al point out that thecaffeine concentrations needed to inhibit the production(30) of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher thanthose that produce stimulation. Moreover, other com-pounds that block phosphodiesterase’s activity are notstimulants.To buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by pre-(35) venting adenosine binding, Snyder et al compared thestimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives withtheir ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors inthe brains of mice. “In general,” they reported, “theability of the compounds to compete at the receptors(40) correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion inthe mouse; i.e., the higher their capacity to bind at thereceptors, the higher their ability to stimulate locomo-tion.” Theophylline, a close structural relative of caffeineand the major stimulant in tea, was one of the most(45) effective compounds in both regards.There were some apparent exceptions to the generalcorrelation observed between adenosine-receptor bindingand stimulation. One of these was a compound called3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine(IBMX), which bound very(50) well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyderet al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block totheir hypothesis. The problem is that the compound hasmixed effects in the brain, a not unusual occurrence withpsychoactive drugs. Even caffeine, which is generally(55) known only for its stimulatory effects, displays thisproperty, depressing mouse locomotion at very low concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.Q.The author quotes Snyder et al in lines 38-43 most probably in order to

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Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

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Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? for GMAT 2024 is part of GMAT preparation. The Question and answers have been prepared according to the GMAT exam syllabus. Information about Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? covers all topics & solutions for GMAT 2024 Exam. Find important definitions, questions, meanings, examples, exercises and tests below for Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?.

Solutions for Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? in English & in Hindi are available as part of our courses for GMAT. Download more important topics, notes, lectures and mock test series for GMAT Exam by signing up for free.

Here you can find the meaning of Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? defined & explained in the simplest way possible. Besides giving the explanation of Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?, a detailed solution for Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? has been provided alongside types of Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? theory, EduRev gives you an ample number of questions to practice Over the past 20,000 years, the average volume of the human male brain has decreased from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cc, losing a chunk the size of a tennis ball. The female brain has shrunk by about the same proportion. If our brain keeps dwindling at this rate over the next 20,000 years, it will start to approach the size of the brain found in Homo erectus, a relative that lived half a million years ago and had a brain volume of only 1,100 cc.Some believe the erosion of our gray matter means that modern humans are indeed getting dumber. A common measure of intelligence - the encephalization quotient or EQ, defined as the ratio of brain volume to body mass - has been found to be decreasing in the recent past. Recent studies of human fossils suggest the brain shrank more quickly than the body in near-modern times. More importantly, analysis of the genome casts doubt on the notion that modern humans are simply daintier but otherwise identical versions of our ancestors, right down to how we think and feel. Another study concluded that our present EQ is the same as that of the Cro-Magnons - our ancestors who lived 30,000 years ago in Europe and were known more for brawniness rather than brilliance.On the other hand, other anthropologists such as Hawks believe that as the brain shrank, its wiring became more efficient, transforming us into quicker, more agile thinkers. They explain the shrinking by arguing that over the very period that the brain shrank, our DNA accumulated numerous adaptive mutations related to brain development and neurotransmitter systemsan indication that even as the organ got smaller, its inner workings changed.This explanation may be plausible, considering that the brain is such a glutton for fuel that it globs up to 20% of all the calories. To optimize this, the evolution may be moving towards a more efficient smaller brain that yields the most intelligence for the least energy. A boom in the human population in the last 20,000 years ago greatly improved the odds of such a fortuitous development since the more the individuals, the bigger the gene pool, and the greater the chance for an unusual advantageous mutation to happen.The man-made product that is closest to the brain, the microprocessor, has seen similar evolution. A microprocessor consists of transistors- the human equivalent of neuron that participates in decision making connected with wires that act as messengers between neurons. The first microprocessors had extremely simple architectures and were not optimized for a certain set of tasks but were more general purpose. Consequently, a lot of the power they consumed was dissipated in internal wiring and not in decision making. With refinements, the architectures became more and more attuned to the tasks that the microprocessor most commonly needed to do. Consequently, for the same number of transistors the amount of wiring decreased by a factor of 3 while the microprocessors processing speed increased by a factor of 10. While active research is still to conclude whether the same holds true in case of the brain, one can only hope that the results are along the lines of the microprocessor.Which of the following if true would weaken the assertion that humans are getting dumber with the erosion of brain volume?a)A study proved that our ancestors with lower encephalization quotient were more intelligent than our ancestors with higher encephalization quotient.b)A discovery that showed that through more refined training methods, a 20 year old can perform many more tasks than a 20 year old could do 500 years back.c)A study that proves that there is positive but non-linear correlation between encephalization quotient and human intelligence.d)A study that discovered that human encephalization quotient increased at a staggering pace 10000 years back.e)A study that proves that there are measures outside of encephalization quotient that makes humans more productive. 2014 ScholaraniumDashboardSkill DataAttemptsSupportTerms of UseCorrect answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer? tests, examples and also practice GMAT tests.

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