Administration and Politics in Different Countries | Public Administration Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Administration And Politics in Various Countries

1. USA:

• The United States has a federal republican system of government, where the President serves as both the national and executive head. Each state has its own constitution and citizenship, while also being part of a federation, allowing them to operate autonomously while working together as a whole. The US Constitution outlines the powers delegated to the national/federal government, the powers reserved for the states, and grants residual powers to the states. The government functions at three levels: national or federal, state, and local (counties, towns, cities, etc.). Separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches is a crucial aspect. The Congress, comprising the Senate (Upper House) and the House of Representatives (Lower House), forms the legislative branch. The constitution does not explicitly specify the administrative system, but it allows the President to seek advice from principal officers of various departments. There are thirteen departments under the President's direct control, although the power to change or reorganize the cabinet lies with the Congress.
• Civil services in the USA are typically based on merit, determined through competitive exams. However, political appointees selected by the President for their exceptional achievements in relevant fields also exist. Some departments are headed by individuals, while others are overseen by Boards and Commissions.

2. UK:

• The United Kingdom has a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, which functions as a parliamentary democracy in practice. The monarch serves as the head of state and performs functions similar to the President in other countries. The legislature is supreme and consists of two chambers: the House of Lords (upper house) and the House of Commons (lower house). The executive branch is headed by the political executive, including the Prime Minister and their cabinet, which is staffed by civil servants working under ministers. Boards and commissions are established to regulate various industries and services. The judiciary operates independently. The House of Lords serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases and some criminal cases.
• The Senior Courts of England and Wales, originally established by the Judicature Acts, were renamed the "Senior Courts of England and Wales" in 2005. They include the Court of Appeal, which handles appeals from other courts or tribunals, and the High Court of Justice, functioning as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court.
  The High Court consists of three divisions: Queen's Bench, Chancery, and Family. The Crown Court has original and appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases and handles a limited amount of civil business. The Lord Chancellor and Home Secretary administer the judicial system. Civil servants are recruited based on merit through open competitive exams.

3. France:
France has a mixed system of government that combines republican and parliamentary elements. The President serves as the Chief Executive and holds significant powers in both the legislature and Parliament. The President is directly elected by the people, and the Prime Minister is chosen and appointed based on the President's preference from the Parliament. The Prime Minister must enjoy the confidence of both the President and the Parliament to maintain their position. The executive branch is separate from the legislature, and while the President cannot directly influence the executive, the Prime Minister typically aligns with the President's party.
Civil services in France have two types of recruitment: external recruitment through open competitive exams for graduates under 27 years old, and internal recruitment for individuals with at least five years of service and not exceeding 36 years old who are already part of the lower ranks of service. The selected candidates undergo training at the Ecole Nationale Administration for two years.

4. Japan:
The Constitution of Japan is based on three principles: the sovereignty of the people, the guarantee of fundamental rights, and the renunciation of war. The Emperor's role is akin to that of a president in other countries. The Japanese people elect representatives to the bicameral Japanese Parliament called the Diet, consisting of the House of Councillors and the House of Representatives. Both houses possess equal powers, but the House of Representatives holds superiority in matters of finance. The Prime Minister, appointed by the Emperor, heads the executive branch, and the Emperor appoints the chief judge of the Supreme Court. Grants from the Diet to the executive require approval. Local governments have autonomy in their respective matters, and the people have the right to choose and remove public officials.
Civil services in Japan are divided into two types: special government service, which includes high-ranking officials in various positions approved by the Diet, and national government personnel, which includes administrative and clerical staff excluding those in the special government service.

Difference Between Democracy And Republic

• Democracy and Republic are two forms of government distinguished by their treatment of the minority and the individual by the majority.
• In a Democracy, the majority has unrestricted power over the minority. This form of government lacks legal safeguards for the rights of the individual and the minority, often referred to as "Majority over Man."
• In a Republic, the majority is limited and restrained by a written Constitution that protects the rights of the individual and the minority. The purpose of a Republic is to control the majority and safeguard the God-given, inalienable rights and liberty of the individual.
• The United States of America was founded as a Republic under the Constitution. Ministries in the US government are headed by ministers who have directors under them responsible for executing policies and providing advice to the ministers.