Ancient Indian Historiography | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Though there may not have been a conventional form of historical writing, there are nevertheless many texts that reflect the historical consciousness of Ancient Indians.
• Many scholars described the Indian past as a static society that registered no historical change, and therefore it had no use for recording the past and used only cyclic time.
• But early Indian history was far from static, and in fact it followed both cyclic and linear systems of time.
• There were three distinct historiographies (ways of explaining the past): the Bardic tradition, the tradition of the Puranas and Shramanic traditions, which were parallel but quite different from each other.
• The historiography of the bards or sutas lay in their narrating events of heroes in the form of ballads and epic fragments.
• It is treated as a kind of substratum source of history.
• In both the Puranic and Shramanic traditions, there was a gradual change in form, information and comment, moving towards creating a historic tradition.

Ancient Indians' View of Historiography

• Many scholars described the Indian past as a static society that registered no historical change, and therefore it had no use for recording the past and used only cyclic time.
• Alberuni had said that Indians had no sense of history and any query resulted in storytelling.
• Early Colonial historians like V.A. Smith and H.H.Wilson said that art of historiography was absent in ancient India.
• Comparisons were made with ancient Greek and Chinese whose history was recorded by historians in systematic manner.
• In China, chronicles of dynasties and rulers were maintained but such trend was absent in ancient India.
• In India, there is absence of literature which can be described specifically as historical writing till 7th century AD.
• Though there are historical records inherent in some literature but they cannot be considered as historical document.
• 7th century AD onwards, a number of historical biographies were written like Harshacharita by Banabhatta but many of these were not treated as history writing because of absence of explanations and critical assessments.

View II (Refuting View I)

• Many Indian historians have defined what is sense of history.
• According to Romila Thapar, the sense of history is in fact the consciousness of the past event presented in organised framework but what event is considered relevant varies from one society to another and the forms they have presented also vary one society to another.
• Under this definition, it cannot be said that ancient Indians were devoid of sense of history and it is not necessary that the document must be a purely historical document and these forms of presentation could be mixed, genealogical records, historical narratives etc.
• There is one significant element of history that is time and ancient Indians were well aware of it. It followed both cyclic and linear systems of time.
• Though there may not have been a conventional form of historical writing, there are nevertheless many texts that reflect the historical consciousness of Ancient Indians.
• There were three distinct historiographies (ways of explaining the past): Bardic tradition, the tradition of the Puranas and Shramanic traditions.
• In both the Puranic and Shramanic traditions, there was a gradual change in form, information and comment, moving towards creating a historic tradition.

Examples

Sense of history of ancient Indians are manifested in the following:
Later Vedic texts:

• Later Vedic texts contain certain types of compositions that reflect a historical consciousness. These include the dana-stutis, gathas, narashamsis, and akhyanas.
• All these types of compositions were directly connected with the performance of sacrifices (yajnas), showing historical consciousness.
• The dana-stutis are hymns praising the generosity and exploits of kings.
• The gathas are songs in praise of kings, sung on the occasion of certain sacrifices.
• Narashamsis were used in rituals and are preserved in texts such as the Brahmanas and Grihyasutras.
• Akhyanas are narrative hymns in dialogue form, referring to mythical and possibly historical events.

The king-lists in the Puranas and epics represent more substantial evidence of an ancient Indian historical tradition.

Puranas:

• They reflect strong sense of history, entire life is divided into 5 phases- sarga, pratisarga, vamsa, vamsanucharita, and Manavantars.
• Puranas also contain chronological history of different dynasties.

Epics (Itihasa):

• The epics are known as Itihasa and are supposed to record things that actually happened (whether they did happen in the way in which they are described is another issue).

Bards (sutas and magadhas):

• The historiography of the bards known as sutas and magadhas lay in their narrating events of heroes in the form of ballads and epic fragments. It is treated as a kind of substratum source of history.
• The poets and bards of the ancient Tamil land who eulogized their royal patrons can also be seen as creators and transmitters of a historical tradition.

Mythico-historical account:

• The Buddhist Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, which offer a mythico-historical account of how Buddhism traveled to Sri Lanka, represent a historical tradition as well.
• Mention may also be made of sacred biographies in the Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu traditions.

Eras:

• Conception of various eras like Saka era, Vikram era, Gupta era etc also reflect consciousness of time and history.

Royal biographies and inscriptions:

• Notwithstanding their eulogistic nature, royal biographies too reflect a historical tradition.
• Royal biographies/ inscriptions even though eulogical (Prashasti containing the king’s genealogy and references to his exploits, usually with a view to shower praise on him) reflect historical tradition too like Prashasti of Samudragupta by his court poet Harisena Harshacharita of Banabhatta Ramacharita of Sandhyakaranandin Vikramadevacharita of Bilhana (Vikramaditya VI, Chalukya king of Kalyani).
• Chronological description in inscriptions of the Kings like Hathigumpha inscription, Ashokan inscriptions, Allahabad inscription, Junagarh inscription etc.

Royal archives to preserve official records:

• The Arthashastra and the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mention royal archives preserving official records in every Indian city (for e.g. Royal archives of Harshavardhana).
• Al-Biruni’s 11th century Tahqiq-i-Hind refers to the archives of the Shahi kings of Kabul.
• Unfortunately, no such ancient archives survive.

While there is evidence of different kinds of historical traditions in ancient and early medieval India, these traditions were very different from our modern notions of history.

• The intellectuals of every age and society select the aspects of the past they consider important and interpret and present them in their own way.
• Since ancient and modern societies differ from each other in so many respects, their ways of looking at the past were different.
• Modern historians distinguish between myth and history, ancient texts do not.
• The historical traditions of ancient India were connected with religious, ritualistic, and court contexts.
• History in our times is an academic discipline based on research, linked to modern institutions such as universities. The ways in which the past was understood and represented in ancient texts are very different from the methods, techniques, and goals of historical research today.

In conclusion it can be said that history as a developed subject was absent, but still sense of history writing was, though limited, but definitely present in ancient time.

With the Advent of Islam

• Before the arrival of Islam in India, ancient Indian historiography was quite limited, with most scholars focusing primarily on religious, spiritual, and philosophical studies. However, after the advent of Islam, Muslim Ulemas and chroniclers began to demonstrate a keen interest in history, documenting detailed accounts of daily events and political upheavals. Their primary motivation was often the glorification of Islam, taking pride in the military exploits of leaders who aimed to transform darul haram (the land of non-believers) into darul Islam (the land of Islam) through conversion.
• Muslim monarchs employed chroniclers, diarists, and court historians who meticulously recorded their activities, often in a systematic and chronological manner, albeit with exaggerations. These scholars produced books, and poets composed masnavis (poetic narratives) on dynastic, regional, or general histories of the Islamic world. They wrote biographical sketches, historical anecdotes, and chronological accounts not only for literary fame or the edification of their patrons but also to satisfy their intellectual curiosity and urge to document their observations.
• During the Sultanate period, historiography flourished in various forms. The age produced numerous professional historians and chroniclers who left behind a rich legacy of historical literature. The earliest literary records of Muslim chroniclers were in Arabic, the language of the Quran and the Arab elite.
• With the establishment of Islam in Persia, there was a revival of Persian nationalism within the Muslim world. This led to the adoption of Persian language and culture by the Turkish dynasties, many of whom were founded by slave officers of Persian monarchs. Consequently, along with Turkish rule, the Persian tradition of historiography was introduced in India.
• Early medieval chroniclers in India, mostly Turks or Afghans of foreign descent, focused primarily on recording the military and political exploits of their leaders and the affairs at the courts of the Delhi sultans or other regional states. They often overlooked the socio-economic conditions of the country and traced the origins of knowledge branches to the Quran and Prophet Muhammad due to the theologically oriented medieval education system.

To understand their material, it is crucial to grasp the mentality of these writers. They were not scientific historians, and their works require careful handling. Their accounts should be verified against modern research methodologies before being accepted as historical facts.

Contemporary Writers and Their Works

Various contemporary writers and their works contribute to the reconstruction of the early medieval period's history.

Chachnama

• Chachnama, written by an anonymous author in Arabic, serves as the most authentic primary source on the history of the indigenous ruling dynasty of Sind before the Arab invasion in 711-12.
• The book narrates the account of the sudra dynasty of Sind, focusing on the rise of Chach, a brahman minister who usurped the throne after the death of the last ruler, Rai Sahasi II, in the seventh century.
• Chach's son, Dahir, ascended the throne around 708 AD and faced the Arab invasion, ultimately perishing in the struggle with his entire family.

Alberuni

• Alberuni (c. 972-1048), a prominent Muslim Indologist and intellectual of the eleventh century, was a polymath with expertise in theology, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and more.
• He accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni's invading forces to the Indo-Gangetic valley as a freelance observer in the 11th century.
• Alberuni extensively traveled throughout India, studying Hindu language, religion, and philosophy, and authored the Arabic classic Tarikh-ul Hind, later translated into Persian.
• This work is an authentic primary source about India's socio-religious conditions during Mahmud of Ghazni's era, offering a scholarly analysis of Hindu social and religious institutions and their cultural heritage.
• Alberuni's book presents a deep sociological study characterized by modern scientific attitude and sympathetic insight, while also critiquing weaknesses in Indian character and socio-political order that contributed to their defeat by invaders.
• He extensively quoted Sanskrit literature to support his arguments.

Utbi

• Utbi, the author of Tarikh-i-Yamini or Kitabul Yamini, was part of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni's personal staff.
• Although Utbi was familiar with Mahmud’s Indian campaigns, he did not accompany Mahmud to India. His book details Mahmud's character and military exploits up to 1020 AD.
• Utbi lacked knowledge of Indian languages and had a poor understanding of Indian geography, leading to inaccuracies in his descriptions of Mahmud’s expeditions.
• Not being a court chronicler or a professional historian, his book is deficient in dates and lacks chronological order.
• Utbi praises Mahmud’s achievements as a defender of Islam, portraying him as a warrior who fought against idol-worshippers by divine order.
• His work was popular among later historians, especially during the Mughal period.

Hasan Nizami

• Hasan Nizami’s Tajul Maasir, meaning 'The Crown of Exploits', focuses mainly on the history of Qutbuddin Aibak.
• Having joined Aibak's service, Nizami’s narrative begins in 1191-92 with Muhammad Ghori’s invasion of India to avenge his earlier defeat by Prithvi Raj III, the Chauhan ruler.
• Taj ul-Ma’asir is notable as the first historical narrative detailing the onset of Muslim rule in India, distinguishing the history of the Delhi Sultanate from that of Ghazni, Central Asia, or Islam.
• Written in a unique blend of Arabic and Persian, the book combines poetry and prose.
• Part history and part fiction, Nizami’s work includes fantastical accounts and subordinate descriptions, reminiscent of the Panchtantra literature, covering subjects like mirrors, chess, natural elements, seasons, fruits, and flowers.

Minhaj us Siraj

• Minhaj us Siraj accompanied Iltutmish to Delhi and was supported by him. He served as a chief Qazi under Sultan Iltutmish and Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-66).
• MinhajusSiraj was an outstanding historian who produced an extensive history of the Islamic world in his book Tabaqati Nasiri.
• The book covers the history of Aibak, his son Aram Shah, Nasiruddin Qabacha, Bahauddin Tughril, the first four rulers of Lakhnauti, Iltutmish, and the early history of Balban.
• It includes biographical sketches of prominent courtiers, military generals, provincial governors, and other notable figures from the sultanate period, concluding with the early history of Balban.
• Tabaqat-i-Nasiri offers valuable records of the Mongol threat in Central Asia and India, referencing Chengiz Khan and his descendants.
• Written in straightforward and accurate language, the work is brief and avoids unnecessary discussions or digressions.
• Minhaj's judicial profession and true historian's spirit are reflected in the methodology and contents of the book.
• Although later medieval historians knew Tabaqat-i-Nasiri well, the Mughal emperors did not promote its widespread circulation due to Minhaj’s candid remarks about the Mongol marauders and their destruction in Central Asia, particularly the suffering they inflicted on Muslims.

Amir Khusrau

• Amir Khusrau (c. 1252-1325) was not a professional historian, though he produced about six historical works, including prose chronicles and masnavis (poetic compositions) like Qiranus Sa’adain, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khazain-ul-Futuh, Nuh Sipihr, and Tughluq Nama.
• He served as the poet laureate in the courts of all the sultans from Balban to Ghiasuddin Tughluq, earning the nickname Tuti e Hind, or 'the parrot of India.'
• His Qiran us Sa’adain is an historical masnavi recounting the meeting between Sultan Kaiqubad and his father Bughra Khan in Oudh, shedding light on the political condition, court atmosphere, and socio-cultural life of the time.
• Miftah-ul-Futuh details the military campaigns of Jalaluddin Khalji in poetic form.
• Khazainul Futuhi, or Tarikh-iIlahi, is a historiographical composition in prose describing Alauddin Khalji’s conquests and achievements, particularly his military campaigns in the Deccan and his policies against the Mongol invasions, based on firsthand knowledge.
• Nuh Sipilir addresses the reign of Mubarak Shah Khalji, an incompetent successor of Alauddin Khalji.
• Tughluq Nama, another historical masnavi, commemorates Ghiasuddin Tughluq's victory over Khusrau Khan in 1320 A.D., marking the establishment of a new ruling dynasty. It serves as a valuable primary source for the reign of Ghiasuddin Tughluq.
• These works were produced either under the direction of reigning monarchs or for presentation to them, with Amir Khusrau's primary concerns being to showcase his literary skill, gain a lasting reputation, and receive rewards for his literary efforts.
• In his writings, he praised his patrons' achievements while downplaying their shortcomings and failures. Generally, these works contain factual and topographical errors and lack chronological order.
• He embellished some trivial events with verbose style, poetic imagery, and literary forms.
• Amir Khusrau is not considered a 'deliberate liar'; rather, he omitted what he chose not to express without distorting facts, unlike Barani with Muhammad bin Tughluq.
• One of Amir Khusrau’s compilations, Ijaz-i-Khusraivi, is a large collection of diverse documents, personal letters, and treatises written for friends or masters, including official documents like the Fathunama of Lakhnauti, which hold significant historical importance.
• Ijaz-i-Khusravi's contents provide invaluable insights into the sociocultural history of the times.

Ziauddin Barani

• Ziauddin Barani (b. 1285), renowned for his work Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, is considered the greatest contemporary historian of early medieval India.
• Barani served in the imperial court under Muhammad bin Tughluq and continued the narrative where Minhaj-us-Siraj left off, covering nine rulers from Balban to Firoze Shah Tughluq, up to the sixth year of Firoze's reign.
• His account, particularly the sections on Firoze Tughluq, is influenced by personal bias, as he was disgraced by the royal court and resorted to flattery to appease the Sultan.
• Barani’s work is noted for its analytical and critical approach, focusing on political and administrative issues without unnecessary details.
• His references provide insight into the rulers' mindsets and the biases of the period.
• Despite his subjective perspective, Barani is recognized as a true historian.
• Fatawa-i-Jahandari, a complementary volume to Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, elaborates on the political philosophy of the Sultanate, discussing the crown's powers, nobility's privileges, state safety, law and order, and the army's role.

Shams i Siraj Afif

• Shams i Siraj Afif (b. 1354 AD.) was a scholar at Firoze Tughluq's court, though he never held an official position.
• He wrote three books on the life, military expeditions, and administrative achievements of the three Tughluq rulers—Ghiasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughluq, and Firoze Tughluq.
• Of these, only 'Tarikh-iFiroze Shahi' has survived, focusing solely on Firoze Tughluq's reign and providing the most accurate contemporary account of his times.
• Afif wrote in the spirit of a historian and biographer, documenting the glorious past for the benefit of posterity without personal bias or prejudice.
• The book details Firoze Tughluq's political and military activities, as well as his administrative policies, particularly in public welfare.
• Unique for its coverage of the general populace's life and conditions, the book offers insights often overlooked by contemporary writers.