Atmosphere & The Himalayas | Geography for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Atmosphere

• Our planet, Earth, is covered by a vast layer of gases that stretches thousands of kilometers above its surface. This layer of gas is known as the atmosphere. 
• Like land (lithosphere) and water (hydrosphere), the atmosphere is a crucial part of the Earth. 
• Although the atmosphere is thin compared to the Earth's radius, it is held close to the planet by the force of gravity, making it inseparable from Earth. 

Atmospheric Pressure

• The air in the atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth's surface because of its weight. This is called atmospheric pressure. 
• Atmospheric pressure is a vital element of the climate. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is about 1034 grams per square centimeter.

Role of Earth’s Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is made up of different gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.
• Plants need carbon dioxide to live, while animals and many other organisms need oxygen. The atmosphere provides these essential gases for life.
• All living things require a specific range of temperatures and certain frequencies of solar radiation to carry out their biological processes. The atmosphere plays a crucial role in regulating this by absorbing some frequencies of solar radiation and allowing others to pass through.
• The atmosphere also keeps the temperature on Earth’s surface within a certain range. Without it, there would be extreme temperature differences between day and night.
• Additionally, harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation would penetrate the Earth’s surface if not for the atmosphere, particularly the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
• The atmosphere also protects Earth from extraterrestrial objects, such as meteors, which burn up due to friction when passing through the atmosphere, especially in the mesosphere.
• Weather is another important aspect regulated by the atmosphere. It influences various natural and human processes, including plant growth, agriculture, soil formation, and human settlements. Different climatic factors come together to create weather, which plays a vital role in shaping life on Earth.

Composition of Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases, along with a large number of solid and liquid particles known as aerosols. 
• Some gases are present in fixed proportions and are considered permanent components of the atmosphere. 
• Other constituents, like water vapor and aerosols, vary in quantity depending on the location and time. 

Permanent and Variable Components:

• Permanent gases remain stable in proportion to the total gas volume, while variable gases can change significantly. 
• If we exclude suspended particles, water vapor, and variable gases, dry air is very stable up to about 80 kilometers in altitude. 

Changes in Gas Proportions with Altitude:

• As we go higher in the atmosphere, the proportions of gases change. For example, at 120 kilometers high, oxygen becomes nearly negligible. 
• Carbon dioxide and water vapor are only found up to about 90 kilometers from the Earth's surface. 

Major Components of the Atmosphere:

• Nitrogen and Oxygen. These two gases make up nearly 99% of clean, dry air. 
• Inert Gases. The remaining gases, which are mostly inert, constitute about 1% of the atmosphere. 
• Water Vapor and Dust Particles. Large quantities of water vapor and dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. These solid and liquid particles play a significant role in the climate. 

Understanding the composition of the atmosphere is crucial as it affects weather, climate, and various environmental processes. The balance of different gases and particles is essential for maintaining life on Earth. 

The atmosphere is made up of various gases, water vapour, and solid particles. The composition of the atmosphere is not uniform and changes from place to place and time to time. The composition of the atmosphere in terms of gases is as follows: 

(a) Permanent Gases:

These gases do not change their proportion in the atmosphere. They include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and neon. 

• Nitrogen: It constitutes 78% of the atmosphere. Nitrogen is a relatively inert gas and is an important constituent of all organic compounds. Its main function is to control combustion by diluting oxygen. Nitrogen also indirectly helps in the oxidation of different kinds. 
• Oxygen: Although it constitutes only 21% of the total volume of the atmosphere, oxygen is the most important component among gases. All living organisms inhale oxygen, and it is essential for combustion. Oxygen can also combine with other elements to form important compounds, such as oxides. 
• Argon: It constitutes about 0.93% of the atmosphere and is a noble gas that does not react with other elements. 
• Neon: It is present in trace amounts and is also a noble gas. 

(b) Variable Gases:
These gases vary in proportion and include carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapour. 

• Carbon Dioxide: It constitutes about 0.03% of the dry air. Carbon dioxide is a product of combustion and is absorbed by green plants through photosynthesis to manufacture food. It plays a significant role in the heat energy budget as an efficient absorber of heat. However, with increased burning of fossil fuels, the carbon dioxide percentage in the atmosphere has been increasing, leading to more heat absorption and potential climatic changes. 
• Ozone: Ozone is a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three atoms instead of two. It forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is unevenly distributed, with the greatest concentrations found between 20 km and 25 km altitude. Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. 
• Water Vapour: Water vapour constitutes between 2% and 4% of the total volume of the atmosphere, depending on the climate. It plays a significant role in the insulating action of the atmosphere by absorbing long-wave terrestrial radiation and a part of the incoming solar radiation. Water vapour is also the source of precipitation and clouds and releases latent heat of condensation, which is the ultimate driving force behind storms. The moisture-carrying capacity of air is directly proportional to the air temperature. 

Solid Particles:
The solid particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles from weathered rocks and volcanic ash, pollen grains, small organisms, soot, ocean salts, and fragments of meteors in the upper layers of the atmosphere. These solid particles perform the function of absorbing, reflecting, and scattering radiation. 

• Absorption, Reflection, and Scattering: Solid particles absorb, reflect, and scatter radiation, which is responsible for the orange and red colours at sunset and sunrise, as well as the blue colour of the sky. 
• Hygroscopic Dust Particles: Some dust particles are hygroscopic, meaning they readily absorb moisture from the air. These particles act as nuclei of condensation and are important for the formation of clouds, fog, and hailstones. 

In summary, the atmosphere is composed of various gases, water vapour, and solid particles, each playing a crucial role in maintaining the balance and supporting life on Earth. The composition of the atmosphere is dynamic and varies with time and location. 

Structure of Atmosphere 

The atmosphere is made up of different layers, and each layer has its own unique features. Let's take a closer look at these layers. 

Troposphere:

•  The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere that stretches from the Earth's surface up to about 8 kilometers at the poles and 18 kilometers at the equator. 
•  The thickness of the troposphere is greater at the equator because warm air rises to higher altitudes there. 
•  The boundary between the troposphere and the layer above it is called the Tropopause. 
•  In the troposphere, as you go higher, the temperature decreases at a rate of about 5°C per kilometer. At the Tropopause, the temperature reaches around -45°C at the poles and -80°C at the equator. 
•  The decrease in temperature with altitude is known as the "lapse rate."
•  The troposphere is characterized by phenomena such as temperature inversion, turbulence, and the presence of eddies. 
•  This layer is also very important for weather because almost all weather events, like rain, fog, and hailstorms, happen here. 
•  That's why it's sometimes called the "convective region," because convection (the movement of warm air) stops at the Tropopause. 
•  The troposphere is where all cyclones, anticyclones, storms, and precipitation occur, as it contains all the water vapor and solid particles. 
•  This layer is also affected by seasons and jet streams. 

 Tropopause:

•  The Tropopause is the highest layer of the troposphere. 
•  It serves as a boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. 
•  In this layer, temperatures remain constant. 

 Stratosphere:

•  The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that lies above the troposphere, extending up to an altitude of 50 kilometers from the Earth's surface. 
•  In this layer, the temperature initially remains constant for a certain distance before gradually increasing, reaching 0°C at an altitude of 50 kilometers. 
•  This increase in temperature is due to the presence of ozone, which absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. 
•  The stratosphere is mostly free from clouds and weather phenomena, making it an ideal environment for flying airplanes. As a result, aircraft often operate in the lower stratosphere or the upper troposphere where the weather is calm. 
•  Occasionally, cirrus clouds may be present at lower levels in this layer. 

 Ozonosphere:

•  The ozonosphere, also known as the chemosphere, is a layer of the atmosphere located between 30 km and 60 km above the Earth's surface, spanning both the stratosphere and the lower mesosphere. 
•  This layer is rich in ozone molecules, which play a crucial role in protecting life on Earth by reflecting harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. 
•  The presence of ozone also contributes to increased chemical activity in this layer, which is why it is sometimes called the chemosphere. 
•  In the ozonosphere, temperature rises at a rate of 5°C per kilometer due to the absorption of UV radiation by ozone. 

 Mesosphere:

•  The mesosphere is the intermediate layer of the atmosphere that extends beyond the ozone layer, reaching up to an altitude of 80 km from the Earth's surface. 
•  In this layer, the temperature gradually decreases with increasing altitude, reaching around -100°C at 80 km. 
•  The mesosphere is also where most meteorites burn up upon entering the Earth's atmosphere from space. 

 Thermosphere:

•  In the thermosphere, temperature increases rapidly with altitude. This layer includes the ionosphere, which extends from about 80 km to 400 km above the Earth's surface. 
•  The ionosphere plays a crucial role in radio transmission because it reflects radio waves back to the Earth. Despite the high temperatures in this layer, individuals do not feel warm due to the extremely low air pressure, where gas molecules are spaced hundreds of kilometers apart. This is why the International Space Station and other satellites orbit in this layer, as they are in a rarified atmosphere where they do not feel the heat. Auroras are also observed in the lower parts of the thermosphere. 

 Ionosphere:

•  The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere located between 80 km and 400 km above the Earth's surface. This layer is characterized by the presence of electrically charged particles, as atoms in this layer are ionized by solar radiation. 
•  The ionization of atoms creates free electrons, which give this layer its electrical charge. The ionosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication because it reflects radio waves transmitted from the Earth back to the surface. 
•  In this layer, temperature also increases with altitude due to the absorption of solar radiation. 

 Exosphere:

• The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere, extending beyond the ionosphere at an altitude of about 400 km above the Earth's surface. In this layer, the air is extremely thin, and the temperature gradually increases with altitude due to direct exposure to sunlight. 
• Light gases such as helium and hydrogen gradually escape into space from this layer. The exosphere represents the transition between the Earth's atmosphere and outer space. 

Speed of Sound:

• The speed of sound in the atmosphere varies with temperature as we move away from the Earth's surface. It is directly proportional to temperature, meaning that as the temperature increases, the speed of sound also increases. 
• This relationship is important in understanding how sound waves travel through different layers of the atmosphere. 

The Himalayan Ranges

 The Himalayas, a young mountain range formed by the collision of tectonic plates, stretch approximately 2,400 kilometers across 13 Indian states and territories. This majestic range is divided into three groups based on relief: the Greater Himalayas, the Middle Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas. Despite their grandeur, the Himalayas are evidence of their youth, showcasing deep gorges, U-turn river courses, parallel ranges, steep gradients, and frequent earthquakes. The Himalayas are known for their rich biodiversity. They act as a barrier to the monsoon, regulate climate, and are the source of major rivers. However, climate change poses a threat to their glaciers, leading to increased floods, droughts, and habitat loss. Preserving this fragile ecosystem requires collective action and sustainable practices to ensure the Himalayas endure for future generations. 

1. Background of The Himalayan Ranges:

• The Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates, making them relatively young fold mountains. This collision began around 50 million years ago and continues to shape the landscape today. 
• The immense pressure from this collision uplifted the Earth's crust, leading to the formation of the towering peaks and deep valleys characteristic of the Himalayas. 
• The width of the Himalayas varies, ranging from 400 kilometers in Kashmir to 150 kilometers in Arunachal Pradesh. 
• Altitude fluctuations are more pronounced in the eastern section compared to the western part. 
• In northwestern India, the ranges predominantly trend from northwest to southeast. The southern slopes are steep, while the northern slopes are relatively gentler. 

2. Introduction of The Himalayan Ranges:

• The Himalayas are the highest and most rugged mountain range in the world, extending over approximately 2,400 kilometers in a sweeping arc. 
• Most of the Himalayan ranges are located within India, Nepal, and Bhutan. In India, the Himalayan region spans 13 states and union territories, including Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Assam, and West Bengal. 
• Based on relief, range alignment, and other geomorphological features, the Himalayas can be divided into three groups: (a) The Himalayas (b) The Trans-Himalayas (c) Purvanchal or the hills of the northeast

The Himalayas

• The northernmost segment of the Himalayas is known as the Great Himalayas, Inner Himalayas, or the 'Himadri.' 
• This range is exceptionally continuous and boasts the loftiest peaks, averaging around 6,000 meters in height. 
• It encompasses all the prominent Himalayan summits, including the world's highest peak, Mount Everest (8,848 meters). Other notable peaks surpassing 8,000 meters include Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, and Annapurna. Kanchenjunga holds the distinction of being India 's highest Himalayan peak. 
• The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. 
• The Himadri range remains snow-covered year-round, hosting numerous large and small glaciers. Upon snow and ice melt, these glaciers feed the rivers of northern India, ensuring their perennial flow. Noteworthy examples include Gangotri and Yamunotri glaciers. 
• This region boasts several crucial passes facilitating trade and transportation. 

(b) Middle/Lesser Himalaya - Himachal:

• Situated south of the Himadri, this range constitutes the most rugged mountain system. 
• The ranges predominantly comprise highly compressed and altered rock formations. 
• Altitudes within this range typically range between 3,700 and 4,500 meters, with an average width of approximately 50 kilometers. 
• Notable ranges within this system include the Pir Panjal, which stands as the longest and most significant, alongside the Dhauladhar and the Mahabharat ranges. 
•  Kashmir Valley, renowned for its beauty, lies nestled between the Pir Panjal and Himadri ranges, while the famous valleys of Kullu and Kangra are also part of the Himachal ranges. 
• The majority of hill towns and resort areas are situated within the Himachal range, including popular destinations like Shimla, Nainital, Mussoorie, Almora, and Darjeeling. 
• Nainital is particularly famous for its stunning lakes, adding to the region's allure and providing serene settings for relaxation and recreation. 
• Prominent ranges in the Lesser Himalayas area include: The Pir Panjal Range in Jammu and Kashmir The Dhauladhar Range in Himachal Pradesh The Mussoorie Range and Nag Tibba Range in Uttarakhand The Mahabharat Range in Nepal 

(c) Outer Himalayas - Shiwalik:

• Positioned between the Great Plains and the Lesser Himalayas, the Shiwaliks form the outermost range of the Himalayas. 
• They constitute an almost continuous chain of low hills, spanning a width of 10 to 50 kilometers, with altitudes ranging between 900 and 1100 meters. 
• Composed primarily of unconsolidated sediments carried by rivers from the higher Himalayan ranges to the north, these ranges are characterized by thick layers of gravel and alluvial deposits. 
• Over time, rivers have carved their paths through the conglomerate deposits, draining away lakes and leaving behind flat plains known as 'duns' in the west and 'duars' in the east. 
• The longitudinal valleys situated between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks are referred to as Duns. Examples include Dehradun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun, which are notable for their geographical features and significance. 
• Different Names of Siwaliks in Different AreasJammu Region: Jammu Hills Arunachal Pradesh: Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills Uttarakhand: The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range Nepal: Churia Ghat Hills 

The Trans-Himalayas/ Tibetan Himalayas

• Located north of the Greater Himalayas and running parallel to them, the Trans-Himalayas encompass the Zaskar Range. Beyond the Zaskar Range lies the Ladakh Range. Further north is the Karakoram Range, situated at the extreme northern boundary of the region. Notably, K2, the world's second-highest peak, is located within the Karakoram Range. 
• These ranges are primarily composed of sedimentary rock formations. 
• Significant rivers originate from this region, including the Sutlej, Indus, and Brahmaputra (known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet). These rivers are considered antecedent rivers due to their origins. 
• The Trans-Himalayas span approximately 1,000 kilometers in an east-west direction, forming a rugged and remote landscape with unique geological features and rich biodiversity. 

Purvanchal/ North-Eastern Hill & Mountains

• These hills, part of the Himalayan mountain system, are oriented from north to south. 
• In the northern region, they are known as the Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, and Manipur Hills. 
• In the southern region, they are referred to as the Mizo or Lushai Hills. 
• These hills are relatively low in elevation and are inhabited by diverse tribal groups engaged in various traditional agricultural practices, including Jhum cultivation (shifting cultivation). 
• The landscape is interspersed with small rivers that create valleys, contributing to the distinctiveness of each hill range. 

Division From West To East (Regional)

• Spanning approximately 560 kilometers, the Punjab Himalayas are located between the Indus and Satluj rivers. 
• This region serves as the drainage basin for all major rivers within the Indus river system. Predominantly found in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, the Punjab Himalayas are also known as the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya. 
• The landscape features various mountain ranges, including the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar, and Pir Panjal ranges. 
•  The Kashmir Himalayas are particularly famous for their Karewa formations, which are ideal for cultivating Zafran, a local saffron variety. Karewas are thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines. 
• Important passes in the region include Zoji La on the Great Himalayas, Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photu La on the Zaskar, and Khardung La on the Ladakh range, facilitating transportation and trade. 
• The region is home to significant freshwater lakes such as Dal and Wular, as well as saltwater lakes like Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri. 
• Longitudinal valleys known as 'duns,' such as Jammu Dun and Pathankot Dun, are found towards the southernmost part of the Punjab Himalayas, contributing to the region's diverse topography and ecosystems. 

(b) Kumaon Himalayas:

• The Kumaon Himalayas, located in Uttarakhand, extend from the Satluj to the Kali river. 
• The Lesser Himalayas in this region are characterized by the Mussoorie and Nag Tibba ranges. 
• Two physiographic features, 'Shiwalik' and 'Dun' formations, are distinct to this area. The Shiwalik formation lies south of the Mussoorie range, between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. 
• Additionally, the region is known for its five famous Prayags, which are river confluences, enhancing its geographical significance and cultural heritage. 

(c) Nepal Himalayas:

• The Nepal Himalayas are situated between the Kali River in the west and the Teesta River in the east. 
• This region is home to the Great Himalaya range, where peaks reach their maximum heights, including renowned mountains like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapurna, Gosainthan, and Dhaulagiri, attracting mountaineers and adventurers. 
• The Lesser Himalaya in this region is known as Mahabharat Lekh. 
• Rivers such as the Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi flow through this range, contributing to its hydrology and biodiversity. 
• The Kathmandu and Pokhara lacustrine valleys, located between the Great and Lesser Himalayas, are known for their scenic beauty and cultural significance. 

(d) Assam Himalayas:

• The Assam Himalayas stretch between the Tista River in the west and the Brahmaputra River in the east, covering approximately 720 kilometers. 
• This region is characterized by high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga and deep valleys, creating stunning landscapes and challenging terrain. 
• The southern slopes are steep, while the northern slopes are gentler. 
• The Himalayas are narrower in this region, with the Lesser Himalayas positioned closer to the Great Himalayas. 
• Fluvial erosion, driven by heavy rainfall, significantly shapes the landscape of the Assam Himalayas. 
• Instead of the Shiwaliks found in other regions, the Assam Himalayas feature 'duar formations,' which have been utilized for tea gardens. The British introduced tea plantations in this area due to favorable conditions such as moderate slopes, thick soil cover with high organic content, well-distributed rainfall throughout the year, and mild winters. 

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas

•  Kanchenjunga: 8598 metres (Sikkim) 
•  Nanga Parbat: 8126 metres (Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan occupied Kashmir) 
•  Nanda Devi: 7817 metres ( Uttarakhand) 
•  Kamet: 7756 metres ( Uttarakhand) 
•  Namcha Barwa: 7756 metres (Arunachal Pradesh) 

In Nepal:

•  Mt. Everest: 8848 metres 
•  Makalu: 8481 metres 
•  Dhaulagiri: 8172 metres 
•  Annapurna: 8078 metres 
•  Gurla Mandhata: 7728 metres 

Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas

 The Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas, extending from the Indus gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east, showcase a remarkable geological feature where the mountain ranges sharply bend southward at these gorges. 

• Western Syntaxial Bend: This bend occurs near Nanga Parbat, where the mountain range shifts direction. 
• Eastern Syntaxial Bend: This bend is observed near Namcha Barwa, further illustrating the unique geological formation of the region. 

 Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas make a pronounced southward turn, giving rise to the Purvachal or Eastern Hills and Mountains. This region stretches along the India-Myanmar border, extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south. 

 Notable ranges in this area include: 

•  Patkai Bum Hills 
•  Naga Hills 
•  Manipur Hills 
•  Jaintia Hills 
•  Khasi Hills 
•  Garo Hills 
•  Mizo Hills 

Importance of Himalayas

• Regulation of Monsoon: The Himalayas play a crucial role in regulating the southwest monsoon winds, leading to heavy rainfall in northern India. This rainfall is vital for agriculture and sustenance in the region. 
• Natural Barrier: The Himalayas serve as a natural barrier, protecting the Indian subcontinent from external threats and climatic influences. 
• Source of Rivers: The Himalayas are the origin of several perennial rivers, including the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. These rivers are essential for irrigation, drinking water, and hydropower generation, supporting millions of people. 
• Tourist Attraction: The Northern Mountains of the Himalayas are a tourist paradise, offering stunning natural landscapes, diverse wildlife, and opportunities for trekking, mountaineering, and adventure sports. 
• Cultural and Spiritual Centers: The Himalayas are home to many famous hill stations and pilgrimage sites, such as Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath, and Vaishno Devi temples, attracting both pilgrims and tourists. 
• Natural Resources: The Himalayas provide raw materials for various forest-based industries, including timber, medicinal plants, and herbs, supporting local economies and livelihoods. 
• Climate Regulation: The Himalayas act as a buffer against cold winds from Central Asia, helping to moderate temperatures and protect India from severe cold weather conditions. 
• Biodiversity: The region is home to significant populations of large bird and mammal species, including vultures, tigers, rhinos, and wild water buffalo. The Eastern Himalaya is a center of diversity for several widely distributed plant species, such as Rhododendron, Primula, and Pedicularis. Mammals like the golden langur, Himalayan tahr, pygmy hog, Asiatic wild dogs, sloth bears, gaurs, snow leopards, black bears, blue sheep, and takin are also found here. 

Evidence of Himalayas being young fold mountain

• Deep Gorges: The presence of deep gorges, such as the Indus Gorge and the Brahmaputra Gorge, indicates ongoing tectonic activity and rapid erosion. These gorges are formed by the relentless force of rivers cutting through the uplifted mountain ranges, showcasing the youthful nature of the Himalayas. 
• U-Turn River Courses: Many rivers in the Himalayan region exhibit U-turn or meandering courses, a result of the active tectonic processes uplifting and deforming the landscape. These meanders are indicative of ongoing geological changes and the youthful nature of the mountain range. 
• Parallel Mountain Ranges: The Himalayas consist of parallel mountain ranges running in a northwest-southeast direction. This parallel alignment suggests recent uplift and folding processes, characteristic of a young fold mountain range. 
• Steep Gradients and Landslides: The steep gradients of the Himalayan slopes, combined with the ongoing tectonic activity, result in frequent landslides and rockfalls. These events are common in young fold mountains where the slopes are still adjusting to the uplift processes. 
• Frequent Earthquake Occurrence: The Himalayas experience frequent earthquakes due to the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. These seismic events are evidence of the active tectonic processes shaping the landscape and indicate the youthfulness of the mountain range. 
• Youthful Rivers: The rivers originating from the Himalayas, such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, exhibit youthful characteristics, including swift currents, steep gradients, and narrow valleys. 

Landslides: Himalayas vs Western Ghats

•  The Himalayas are prone to landslides due to both natural and human-induced factors. 
•  Naturally, their tectonic activity, resulting from the drifting Indian plate, causes frequent earthquakes and instability. 
•  The composition of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated deposits in the Himalayas further increases this vulnerability. 
•  The steep slopes, combined with heavy winter snowfall and summer melting, trigger debris flows, exacerbated by the numerous streams and rivers. 
•  Human activities such as shifting cultivation, dam construction, and tunnel excavation also heighten the risk of landslides in the region. 

Western Ghats:

•  In the Western Ghats, landslides are more common on the steep western slopes, where high rainfall creates conditions conducive to instability. 
•  The gentler eastern slopes, characterized by lower rainfall and mature river systems, are less susceptible to landslides. 
•  Unlike the Himalayas, the Western Ghats experience fewer earthquakes, as they are situated on a more stable part of the Indian plate. 

Climate change and Himalayan Glaciers

• Increased seasonal melting and higher water discharge from Himalayan rivers, combined with intensified rainfall, result in more frequent and severe floods in Northern India, such as the floods in Uttarakhand. 
• There is a likelihood of an increase in Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) due to the shrinking glaciers. 
• Erratic water flow during the summer months leads to drought-like conditions, impacting agricultural productivity and food security. 
• Current trends indicate that rivers like the Ganges and other Himalayan rivers may become seasonal, posing significant challenges for agriculture, food security, and employment opportunities for millions of people. 
• The melting of glaciers has also contributed to an increase in avalanches and landslides in the region. 
• The melting ice from glaciers contributes to the rise in sea levels, which in turn increases the frequency of tropical cyclones in the region. 
• Biodiversity in the Himalayan region is disturbed and vulnerable to extinction due to the changing climate and habitat loss. 

National Action Plan on Climate Change:

• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) is India’s domestic plan for ecologically sustainable development to be implemented with her own resources. 
• Eight national missions have been recommended for implementation, in the NAPCC in which one of the missions is National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Eco-system (NMSHE). 

National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Eco-system (NMSHE):
The mission would attempt to evolve management measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountain ecosystem by: 

• Enhancing monitoring of Himalayan ecosystem with a focus on recession of Himalayan glaciers and its impact on river system and other downstream socio-ecological processes. 
• Establishing observational and monitoring network to assess ecosystem health including freshwater systems. 
• Promoting community-based management through developing mechanisms for incentives for protection and enhancement of forested lands. 
• Strengthening regional cooperation through established mechanisms for exchanging information with countries sharing the Himalayan ecology. 

Conclusion

The Himalayas are a powerful reminder of nature's strength and the enduring spirit of humanity. Their towering peaks and lush valleys inspire wonder in everyone who sees them. However, as we admire their beauty, it's important to remember our duty to protect and preserve this delicate ecosystem for future generations. Only by working together and using sustainable practices can we ensure that the Himalayas continue to captivate and inspire people for many years to come.