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Administrative Changes After 1858

Introduction

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, marked a significant turning point in British rule over India. In its aftermath, the British administration underwent extensive reorganization to strengthen control and consolidate power.

• Transfer of Power

  
  An Act of Parliament in 1858 transferred governance of India from the East India Company to the British Crown, marking the end of the Company's direct rule.
  The power to govern India was now vested in the British Crown, exercised through a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
  The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and accountable to Parliament, thereby placing ultimate authority over India in the hands of Parliament.

• Structure of Governance

  
  The India Council, composed mainly of retired British-Indian officials, advised the Secretary of State, though the Secretary could override its decisions.
  Initially, the Governor-General retained significant decision-making power, but over time, especially with advancements in communication technology like the submarine cable laid in 1870, control from London intensified.
  The Governor-General, now titled Viceroy, was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status in relation to the British Government, marking a shift towards centralized control from London.

• Executive Council and Legislative Measures

  
  The Act of 1858 established an Executive Council for the Governor-General, whose members acted as department heads and advisors, with the Governor-General having the power to override their decisions.
  The Indian Councils Act of 1861 expanded the Governor-General's Council into the Imperial Legislative Council, responsible for making laws but lacking real power.
  The Legislative Council was merely an advisory body, unable to discuss important measures without government approval or control the budget.
  Non-official Indian members were added to represent Indian views, but they were few in number and not elected, rendering them unrepresentative of Indian society.

• Impact on Indian Society

  
  The Act of 1858 reinforced British control over India, leading to increased influence by British industrialists, merchants, and bankers.
  Indian opinion had little impact on government policy, exacerbating the alienation of Indian masses from the governing process.
  The British administration, having shifted from the East India Company to direct Crown control, maintained its authoritarian nature, contributing to growing nationalist sentiments among Indians.
  Overall, the administrative changes after 1858 consolidated British control over India while marginalizing Indian participation in governance, laying the groundwork for future nationalist movements.
  

  Provincial Administration

  
  

  Presidencies and Provinces

  
  - India was administratively divided into provinces for convenience, with Bengal, Madras, and Bombay designated as Presidencies.
  - Each Presidency was governed by a Governor and an Executive Council appointed by the Crown.
  - Other provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governors and Chief Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General.
  

  Centralization and Decentralization

  
  - Before 1833, provincial governments enjoyed autonomy, but their power was centralized, limiting their ability to efficiently govern a vast country like India.
  - The Act of 1861 marked a shift towards decentralization, establishing legislative councils in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, and later in other provinces.
  - However, these provincial legislative councils were advisory bodies, lacking real legislative powers akin to a democratic parliament.
  

  Financial Decentralization

  
  - Extreme centralization in finance led to inefficiencies and conflicts between the Central Government and provincial governments.
  - Lord Mayo initiated steps towards financial decentralization in 1870, granting fixed sums to provinces for certain services like police, education, and medical services.
  - Lord Lytton expanded this scheme in 1877, transferring additional heads of expenditure to provinces and granting them a share of certain revenue sources.
  - Further changes in 1882 under Lord Ripon saw the end of fixed grants to provinces, replaced by a system where provinces received income from certain revenue sources and a fixed share from others.
  

  Impact and Autonomy

  
  - Financial decentralization did not signify genuine provincial autonomy or Indian participation in administration.
  - The Central Government retained supreme authority, exercising effective control over provincial governments.
  - Despite these reforms, the British Government's grip on provincial administration remained firm, serving its own interests rather than fostering genuine self-governance.
  

  Local Bodies

  
  

  Introduction of Local Governance

  
  - Financial constraints prompted the British Government to decentralize administration through municipalities and district boards.
  - Increased contact with Europe and rising nationalist sentiments also fueled demands for modern improvements in civic life.
  

  Formation of Local Bodies

  
  - Local bodies were established between 1864 and 1868, but they consisted of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates, lacking true local self-government.
  - Indians viewed these bodies as instruments for extracting additional taxes rather than vehicles for genuine representation.
  

  Reforms under Lord Ripon

  
  - Lord Ripon's government took a hesitant step towards reform in 1882, emphasizing administration through elected rural and urban local bodies.
  - The majority of members were to be non-officials, with elections permitted wherever feasible.
  - However, elected members remained a minority, and the right to vote was restricted, limiting the democratic nature of these bodies.
  - Despite some progress, local bodies largely functioned as extensions of the government, with officials retaining significant control over their activities.
  Overall, while these reforms aimed to address financial challenges and incorporate Indian participation, they fell short of genuine autonomy or meaningful democratic representation in provincial and local governance.
  

  Changes in the Army

  
  

  Reorganization after 1858

  
  - Following the transfer of power to the British Crown, the Indian army underwent careful reorganization, including the merger of the East India Company's European forces with the Crown troops.
  - The primary objective of the reorganization was to prevent another revolt like the one in 1857, recognizing the pivotal role of the army in maintaining British rule.
  

  European Dominance and Division

  
  - To ensure European dominance, the proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was increased, with specific ratios maintained across different regions.
  - Crucial branches like artillery were reserved exclusively for Europeans, and the policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps remained in place until 1914.
  - The organization of the Indian section of the army was based on a policy of "balance and counterpoise" to prevent unity against British rule.
  

  Discriminatory Practices

  
  - Discrimination based on caste, region, and religion was employed in recruitment to the army, with distinctions made between "martial" and "non-martial" classes.
  - Soldiers from regions like Avadh, Bihar, and South India, which had participated in the 1857 revolt, were deemed non-martial and recruited in fewer numbers.
  - Communities like Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans, viewed as supportive of British interests, were recruited in larger numbers.
  - Indian regiments were deliberately composed of various castes and groups to prevent the growth of nationalist sentiment among soldiers.
  

  Mercenary Force and Isolation

  
  - The Indian army remained a purely mercenary force, separated from the broader population and isolated from nationalist ideas.
  - Efforts were made to prevent soldiers from being exposed to nationalist publications and ideas, ensuring their allegiance to British rule.
  - Despite these efforts, sections of the Indian army would later play significant roles in India's struggle for independence.
  

  Cost and Purpose

  
  - The Indian army became a costly military machine, absorbing a significant portion of Indian revenues, reaching nearly 52% in 1904.
  - It served multiple purposes, including defending India from rival imperial powers, extending British power in Asia and Africa, and acting as an army of occupation to maintain British control over the country.
  - The burden of maintaining the army fell on Indian revenues, despite its role in serving British imperial interests.
  

  Public Services

  
  

  Limited Indian Participation

  
  - Indians had minimal control over the Government of India, lacking representation in lawmaking and administrative policy decisions.
  - The bureaucracy, responsible for implementing policies, was dominated by members of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) recruited through a competitive examination held annually in London.
  - While Indians were allowed to sit for the examination, numerous barriers hindered their success, including the distance to London, the English language medium, and the classical education requirements based on Greek and Latin learning.
  

  Exclusion from Positions of Power

  
  - In various administrative departments such as Police, Public Works, Medicine, Posts and Telegraphs, and Railways, superior and well-paid positions were reserved for British citizens.
  - The deliberate preponderance of Europeans in strategic posts was considered crucial for maintaining British supremacy in India, as outlined by Lord Kimberley and Lord Lansdowne in their directives emphasizing the necessity of European control.
  

  Gradual Indianization

  
  - Under Indian pressure, administrative services began to be Indianized after 1918, but control and authority remained predominantly in British hands.
  - Despite Indianization efforts, the positions of power continued to be held by British officials, ensuring the perpetuation of British rule and interests.
  

  Indian Bureaucrats as Agents of British Rule

  
  - Indian bureaucrats in these services primarily served as agents of British rule, faithfully executing Britain's imperial objectives without significant autonomy or influence.
  - The Indianization of administrative services did not translate into political power for Indians, who found themselves functioning within a system designed to maintain British control over India.
  

  Relations with the Princely States

  
  

  Post-1857 Policy Shift

  
  - The Revolt of 1857 prompted the British to alter their policy towards the Indian princely states, abandoning the previous approach of annexation.
  - Princely states that remained loyal to the British during the revolt were rewarded with assurances of autonomy and territorial integrity.
  

  Role of Princely States as Allies

  
  - Indian princes, deemed as "breakwaters in the storm" by Lord Canning, were recognized for their support in suppressing the revolt.
  - The British viewed the princely states as potential allies and supporters in times of popular opposition or revolt, considering their existence crucial for maintaining British rule in India.
  

  Subordination and Paramountcy

  
  - Despite their autonomy, princely states were subordinated to British authority, acknowledging Britain as the paramount power.
  - Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India in 1876, emphasizing British sovereignty over the entire subcontinent.
  - Princes ruled their states as agents of the British Crown, accepting their subordinate position in exchange for continued rulership.
  

  British Supervision and Interference

  
  - As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to supervise the internal affairs of princely states, often interfering in their administration through appointed Residents.
  - The British appointed and dismissed ministers and high officials, and occasionally removed or deprived rulers of their powers.
  - Interference aimed at modernizing state administration and integrating princely states with British India, facilitated by developments in railways, postal services, and economic integration.
  - British intervention also addressed administrative abuses and suppressed popular democratic and nationalist movements within princely states.
  

  Illustrative Cases

  
  - Examples such as Mysore and Baroda demonstrate the evolution of British policy towards the princely states.
  - In Mysore, the adopted heir was recognized, and the state fully restored to the Maharajah after a period of British administration.
  - Conversely, in Baroda, the ruler was accused of misrule and deposed, but the state was not annexed; instead, a member of the ruling family was installed as the new ruler.
  

  Administrative Policies

  
  

  Post-1857 Shift

  
  - Following the Revolt of 1857, British policies in India shifted from hesitant attempts at modernization to overtly reactionary measures.
  - Previously, there was some acknowledgment of preparing Indians for self-government, but now it was openly asserted that Indians were unfit for self-rule, necessitating indefinite British control.
  

  Divide and Rule

  
  - The British had initially conquered India by exploiting divisions among Indian powers, a policy known as "divide and rule."
  - Post-1858, they continued this strategy by sowing divisions among various groups, including turning princes against the people, provinces against each other, and fostering animosity between castes and religious communities.
  - The unity demonstrated by Hindus and Muslims during the 1857 Revolt was seen as a threat to British rule, leading to deliberate efforts to undermine it.
  

  Manipulation of Religious Divisions

  
  - After the Revolt, Muslims were repressed, and their lands and properties confiscated, while Hindus were favored by the British.
  - From 1870 onwards, there was a reversal of this policy, as attempts were made to alienate upper and middle-class Muslims from the nationalist movement.
  - The British government exploited the aspirations of educated Indians, who depended largely on government jobs due to the lack of opportunities in industry and commerce, to create divisions along religious lines.
  

  Communal Rivalry

  
  - The government capitalized on the competition among educated Indians for government posts, fueling provincial and communal rivalries.
  - Official favors were promised based on communal loyalty, pitting educated Muslims against educated Hindus in pursuit of government positions.
  

  Hostility to Educated Indians

  
  

  Encouragement and Shift in Attitude

  
  - Modern education was initially encouraged by the British in India after 1833, leading to the establishment of universities in major cities.
  - Initially, British officials commended the educated Indians for their refusal to participate in the 1857 Revolt.
  - However, as educated Indians began using their knowledge to critique British imperialism and demand Indian participation in administration, official attitudes turned hostile.
  

  Curtailed Higher Education

  
  - The British administration actively took steps to curtail higher education and viewed educated Indians with disdain, often referring to them derogatorily as "babus."
  - This shift in attitude reflected British opposition to progress along modern lines, contradicting their earlier stance of preparing Indians for self-government.
  

  Attitude Towards Zamindars

  
  

  Alliance with Reactionary Classes

  
  - Despite hostility towards educated Indians, the British forged alliances with reactionary groups like princes, zamindars, and landlords.
  - This shift aimed to use these groups as a barrier against the rise of popular and nationalist movements.
  

  Placation and Protection

  
  - Zamindars and landlords were hailed as traditional leaders, and their interests and privileges were protected.
  - They were positioned as counterweights against the nationalist intelligentsia, ensuring their loyalty to British rule.
  

  Attitude Towards Social Reforms

  
  

  Abandonment of Reform Support

  
  - The British abandoned their previous support for social reformers, aligning themselves with orthodox opinion.
  - Measures of social reform, such as the abolition of Sati and widow remarriage, were believed to have fueled the 1857 Revolt, leading to a shift in policy.
  

  Dilemma and Complicity

  
  - British neutrality on social issues was problematic, as supporting the status quo indirectly perpetuated social evils.
  - Encouragement of casteism and communalism for political purposes actively promoted social reaction.
  

  Extreme Backwardness of Social Services

  
  

  Misallocation of Funds

  
  - Despite substantial revenues, the Government of India prioritized spending on the army and administration, neglecting social services.
  - Minimal allocations were made for education, public health, sanitation, and irrigation, particularly in rural areas.
  

  Urban Bias and Exclusion

  
  - Even the limited social services provided were predominantly focused on urban areas, serving Europeans and upper-class Indians in British-designed parts of cities.
  

  Labour Legislation

  
  

  Harsh Working Conditions

  
  - Workers in modern factories and plantations faced exploitative conditions, including long hours, low wages, and hazardous working environments.
  

  Half-Hearted Reforms

  
  - The Government of India, influenced by capitalist interests, enacted inadequate labor laws primarily to appease British manufacturers' fears of Indian competition.
  - The early laws primarily addressed child labor, while regulations for women and men remained lax.
  

  Plantation Exploitation

  
  - Plantation workers, especially in tea and coffee plantations, faced severe exploitation, including coercion and fraud to maintain a workforce.
  - The government supported planters' ruthless practices with penal laws, denying basic rights to workers.
  

  Restrictions on the Press

  
  

  Initial Freedom and Nationalist Use

  
  - The printing press introduced by the British facilitated the growth of the modern press in India, which became a powerful political force.
  - Initially, the press enjoyed freedom following the repeal of restrictions in 1835, leading to its enthusiastic adoption by educated Indians.
  

  Repressive Measures

  
  - As the press began critiquing British policies and arousing nationalist sentiment, the British enacted the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 to curb its freedom.
  - The Act faced strong protest and was repealed in 1882, but repressive press laws were reintroduced in 1908 and 1910 in response to the Swadeshi and Boycott movement.
  

  Racial Antagonism

  
  

  Historical Context

  
  - The British in India historically perceived themselves as racially superior to the indigenous population.
  - The events of the 1857 Revolt and subsequent atrocities deepened the divide between Indians and the British, exacerbating racial tensions.
  

  Assertion of Racial Supremacy

  
  - Post-1857, the British openly asserted the doctrine of racial supremacy and exhibited racial arrogance.
  - Segregation policies were implemented, visible in railway compartments, waiting rooms, parks, hotels, swimming pools, clubs, etc., reserved exclusively for Europeans.
  
  

  Humiliation and Contempt

  
  - These segregation policies left Indians feeling humiliated and discriminated against, perpetuating a sense of inferiority.
  - Jawaharlal Nehru described how racialism permeated all aspects of British rule, leading to the insult, humiliation, and contemptuous treatment of Indians.
  

  Ideology of Racial Superiority

  
  - British rule in India was founded on the ideology of racial superiority, with concepts like "Herrenvolk" (master race) and the "Master Race" doctrine.
  - The structure of government and administration was based on this ideology, reinforcing the notion of British racial supremacy.
  

  Imperialism and Racial Arrogance

  
  - Imperialism inherently perpetuates the idea of a master race, justifying colonial rule and domination.
  - The British authorities openly proclaimed their racial superiority, reminding Indians of their supposed "inferior" status and the "tiger qualities" of the imperial race if they dared to protest.