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Administrative Organisation and Social and Cultural Policy

We have seen in the previous chapter that by 1784 the East India Company's administration of India had been brought under its control by the British Government and that its economic policies were being determined by the needs of the British economy. Now, we will delve into the organization through which the Company administered its recently acquired dominion.

The Evolution of Administration

• Initially, the Company left the administration of its possessions in India in Indian hands, with its activities confined to supervision.
• However, it soon realized that British aims were not adequately served by following the old methods of administration.
• Under Warren Hastings and Cornwallis, the administration of Bengal was completely overhauled, laying the foundations of a new system based on the English pattern.

Objectives of Imperialism

• Despite changes over time, the overarching objectives of imperialism, namely control and economic exploitation, remained constant.

The Three Pillars of British Administration

• The British administration in India was supported by three main pillars: the Civil Service, the Army, and the Police.
• Maintenance of Law and Order: The primary aim of British-Indian administration was the maintenance of law and order to perpetuate British rule.
• Economic Exploitation: Without law and order, British merchants and manufacturers could not effectively sell their goods throughout India.
• Relying on Force: Being foreigners, the British could not rely on winning the affections of the Indian people. Instead, they relied on superior force to maintain control.

Quoting the Duke of Wellington

The Duke of Wellington, having served in India, remarked on the stark differences between governance in India and Europe, emphasizing the reliance on military power in India:

"The system of Government in India, the foundation of authority, and the modes of supporting it and of carrying on the operations of government are entirely different from the systems and modes adopted in Europe for the same purpose. ... The foundation and the instrument of all power there is the sword."

This quote highlights the unique nature of British rule in India, where military might played a central role in maintaining control and authority.

Civil Service

The Civil Service in British India underwent significant changes and developments under the governance of Lord Cornwallis and subsequent administrators. Here's a detailed exploration of its evolution:

Origins and Corruption

• Initially, the East India Company employed servants who also engaged in private trade.
• As the Company became a territorial power, these servants assumed administrative roles but were plagued by corruption.
• Corruption manifested in various forms including oppression of local artisans, extortion from regional leaders, and illegal private trade.

Reforms under Cornwallis

• Lord Cornwallis, arriving as Governor-General in 1786, aimed to cleanse the administration.
• Recognizing that low salaries incentivized corruption, Cornwallis enforced rules against private trade and bribery while raising civil servants' salaries significantly.
• For instance, Collectors were to be paid Rs. 1500 monthly along with a commission on revenue collection.
• Cornwallis emphasized promotion by seniority to maintain independence from external influence.

Training and Education

• Lord Wellesley highlighted the lack of training for civil servants upon their arrival in India.
• In response, the College of Fort William was established in Calcutta to educate recruits, later replaced by the East Indian College at Haileybury, England, by the Directors of the East India Company.
• Appointment to the Civil Service was initially controlled by the Directors, who resisted relinquishing this authority even as Parliament intervened.

Exclusion of Indians

• The policy of complete exclusion of Indians from higher posts in the Civil Service was officially established in 1793.
• English personnel were considered necessary to establish British-style administration, and Indians were deemed untrustworthy and morally deficient.
• This policy extended to other branches of government like the army, police, judiciary, and engineering.

Reasons for Exclusion

• British officials justified the exclusion by claiming that Indians lacked integrity and understanding of British interests.
• Additionally, the influential British elite fought to maintain the monopoly of lucrative appointments for their sons, leading to fierce disputes between the Directors of the Company and members of the British Cabinet.
• Indians were, however, recruited for subordinate roles due to their affordability and availability.

Legacy of the Indian Civil Service

• The Indian Civil Service evolved into a powerful and efficient institution, often shaping policies and exercising considerable authority.
• However, it maintained a rigid, exclusive, and conservative outlook, viewing its rule in India as almost divinely ordained.
• Despite its efficiency, the Indian Civil Service became a target of criticism and opposition from the emerging Indian nationalist movement.

Overall, the Indian Civil Service played a significant role in sustaining British rule in India, albeit at the expense of Indian interests and aspirations.

Army

The British army in India constituted a significant pillar of the colonial regime, serving multiple functions and consisting predominantly of Indian soldiers. Here's an in-depth exploration:

Functions of the Army

• The army played three crucial roles: conquering Indian powers, defending the British Empire from external threats, and maintaining internal order to uphold British supremacy.

Composition and Recruitment

• The bulk of the East India Company's army comprised Indian soldiers, primarily recruited from regions now encompassed by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• In 1857, the army in India numbered 311,400, with 265,900 being Indian soldiers. However, all officers were exclusively British, a tradition dating back at least to the time of Cornwallis.

Role of British Officers

• Despite the predominance of Indian soldiers, the officer corps remained entirely British.
• Only a few Indians received relatively low salaries, and the highest-ranking Indian officer was a subedar in 1856.

Utilization of Indian Troops

• The extensive use of Indian troops was partly due to the expense of maintaining British troops and the limited population of Britain to provide soldiers.
• To counterbalance the Indian soldiers' numerical superiority, a certain number of British troops were maintained to keep them under control.

Factors Enabling British Control

• The ability of a minority of foreigners to conquer and control India with a predominantly Indian army can be attributed to two key factors:

1. 
   
2. Absence of Modern Nationalism: At the time, there was no concept of modern nationalism in India. Soldiers from different regions did not perceive fighting for the Company against other Indian powers as being anti-Indian.
3. Loyalty to the Paymaster: Indian soldiers had a long tradition of loyalty to those who paid their salaries, commonly referred to as "loyalty to the salt." The Company, being a reliable paymaster, secured the loyalty of its soldiers through regular and generous payments, a practice not common among Indian rulers and chieftains.

These factors, combined with the Company's effective payment system and the absence of modern nationalist sentiments, facilitated British control over India despite the predominance of Indian soldiers in its army.

Police

The police force, serving as the third pillar of British rule in India, underwent significant reforms under the administration of Lord Cornwallis. Here's a detailed examination of its evolution:

Creation and Functions

• Lord Cornwallis initiated the establishment of a regular police force to maintain law and order, relieving zamindars of their traditional policing duties.
• He modernized the old Indian system of policing, introducing a system of circles or thanas headed by an Indian officer known as a daroga.
• Interestingly, Cornwallis's reforms placed India ahead of Britain in terms of police organization and modernization.

Exclusion of Indians from Superior Posts

• Similar to other branches of administration, Indians were excluded from higher-ranking positions within the police force.
• The post of District Superintendent of Police was created to oversee the police organization in a district, typically filled by British officials.

Role in Crime Reduction

• The police force gradually succeeded in reducing major crimes such as dacoity and played a significant role in suppressing the activities of thugs who robbed and killed travelers, particularly in Central India.
• It also prevented large-scale conspiracies against foreign control and was utilized to suppress the emerging nationalist movement.

Attitude towards the People

• Despite its successes in crime reduction, the Indian police adopted an unsympathetic attitude towards the populace.
• A Parliamentary Committee in 1813 reported instances of police committing depredations on peaceable inhabitants, akin to the actions of the criminals they were tasked with suppressing.
• Governor-General William Bentinck noted in 1832 that the police were perceived unfavorably by the public, with regulations sometimes favoring criminals over victims, illustrating the populace's disillusionment with law enforcement.

The evolution of the police force under British rule in India reflects a mix of modernization efforts, exclusionary policies, and challenges in maintaining public trust and satisfaction.

Judicial Organisation

The British colonial administration in India established a new system of dispensing justice, which underwent significant reforms and modernization. Here's a detailed examination of its evolution:

Foundations of the New System

• Warren Hastings initiated the establishment of a hierarchical system of civil and criminal courts, which was further stabilized by Cornwallis in 1793.
• In each district, a Diwani Adalat or civil court was established, presided over by a District Judge from the Civil Service, separating the posts of Civil Judge and Collector.

Civil Courts

• Appeals from the District Court were first directed to four Provincial Courts of Civil Appeal and then to the Sadar Diwani Adalat.
• Registrars' Courts, headed by Europeans, and subordinate courts led by Indian judges known as Munsifs and Amins operated below the District Court.

Criminal Courts

• For criminal cases, Cornwallis established Courts of Circuit presided over by civil servants in four divisions within the Presidency of Bengal.
• Indian magistrates were appointed to try petty cases, with appeals from the Courts of Circuit directed to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat.
• These courts applied Muslim Criminal Law in a modified and less harsh form, prohibiting extreme punishments such as limb amputation.

Reforms under William Bentinck

• In 1831, Bentinck abolished the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit, transferring their functions to Commissions, District Judges, and District Collectors.
• He elevated the status and powers of Indians in the judicial service, appointing them as Deputy Magistrates, Subordinate Judges, and Principal Sadar Amins.

Establishment of High Courts

• In 1865, High Courts were established in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, replacing the Sadar Courts of Diwani and Nizamat.

Enactment and Codification of Laws

• The British introduced a new system of laws through legislation and codification, gradually replacing customary laws prevalent in India.
• The Charter Act of 1833 vested all lawmaking power in the Governor-General-in-Council, leading to the codification of laws.
• A Law Commission headed by Lord Macaulay was appointed in 1833 to codify Indian laws, resulting in the Indian Penal Code, Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, and other codes.
• This unified system of laws prevailed throughout India, enforced by a uniform system of courts, contributing to the judicial unification of the country under British rule.

The establishment of a new judicial system, along with the enactment and codification of laws, transformed the legal landscape of India, shaping its governance and administration during the colonial period.

The Rule of Law

The British introduced the modern concept of the rule of law, aiming to govern administration in obedience to laws rather than the ruler's personal discretion. However, practical implementation often deviated from this ideal:

Arbitrary Powers of Bureaucracy and Police

• Despite the theoretical adherence to the rule of law, bureaucracy and police frequently wielded arbitrary powers, infringing upon the rights and liberties of the people.
• Officials could be brought before a court of law for breaches of duty or exceeding official authority, providing some safeguard for personal liberty.

Traditional vs. British Rule

• Previous Indian rulers were bound by tradition but possessed the legal right to take any administrative action without oversight, unlike under British rule.
• While British administration operated largely according to laws interpreted by courts, laws were often autocratically made by foreign rulers, leaving considerable power in the hands of civil servants and police.

Equality Before Law

• The British legal system emphasized equality before the law, treating all individuals equally regardless of caste, religion, or class, unlike the previous system which favored higher castes and nobles.
• However, Europeans and their descendants were an exception, with separate courts and laws, often leading to injustices and unequal treatment in criminal cases.

Legal Inequality and Access to Justice

• While theoretically equal, access to justice became costly and cumbersome for many, with court fees, legal expenses, and distant court locations hindering justice for the poor.
• Complicated laws and widespread corruption in the administrative machinery favored the rich and powerful, leading to frequent miscarriages of justice and oppression of the marginalized.
• The pre-British system, although informal, was comparatively speedy and inexpensive, contrasting with the more complex and expensive British judicial system.

While the British legal system introduced commendable principles such as the rule of law and equality before law, it also perpetuated inequalities and challenges in accessing justice for the common people.

Social and Cultural Policy

The British approach to India's social and cultural landscape evolved over time, influenced by changing attitudes in Britain and the dynamics of colonial governance:

Initial Non-Interference (Pre-1813)

• Until 1813, British authorities followed a policy of non-interference in India's religious, social, and cultural affairs.
• This stance changed due to evolving interests and ideas in Britain, driven by the Industrial Revolution and the growth of industrial capitalism.

Influence of European Thought

• The 18th and 19th centuries saw a surge of new ideas in Europe, including rationalism, humanism, and faith in progress.
• Figures like Bacon, Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and others contributed to a shift towards rational and scientific outlooks, impacting British perspectives on India.

Clash of Attitudes

• British officials in India held differing views, with conservatives advocating minimal changes to Indian society while radicals pushed for rapid modernization.
• Conservatives feared that sweeping reforms would lead to societal unrest, while radicals believed in the capacity of Indians to embrace progress.

Role of Radicals and Missionaries

• Radicals like James Mill and William Bentinck sought to modernize India based on Western ideals of reason and humanism, aiming to uplift Indian society.
• Christian missionaries, motivated by religious fervor, supported Westernization in the hope of eventual conversion to Christianity.

Indian Response

• Indian reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy aligned with the radical agenda, recognizing the need for societal rejuvenation and rejecting caste prejudices.

Gradual Innovation vs. All-Out Modernization

• The British government in India opted for cautious, gradual innovation rather than full-scale modernization, influenced by the conservative outlook of many officials.
• Fears of revolutionary backlash and the priority of maintaining British rule also tempered radical impulses.

Ultimately, the British approach to social and cultural policy in India was characterized by a complex interplay of imperialist motives, religious zeal, and evolving ideas of progress and civilization.

Humanitarian Measures

The British administration in India implemented limited reforms aimed at addressing social abuses, though their impact was often minimal:

Abolition of Sati

• In 1829, William Bentinck enacted legislation making it a crime to participate in or facilitate the practice of Sati, where widows were burned alive on their husband's funeral pyre.
• Earlier, British rulers had been hesitant to intervene due to fear of antagonizing orthodox Indian sentiments, but pressure from enlightened Indians like Rammohun Roy and missionaries eventually led to this humanitarian action.
• Bentinck's decisive action outlawed a practice responsible for the deaths of hundreds of widows in Bengal alone, despite opposition from supporters of Sati.

Suppression of Female Infanticide

• Female infanticide, prevalent among certain Rajput clans and other castes, was tackled by Bentinck and later by Hardinge through stringent enforcement of regulations passed in 1795 and 1802.
• These measures aimed to address the scarcity of women due to high male mortality rates in warfare and economic challenges in unfertile regions.
• In 1856, an Act was passed allowing Hindu widows to remarry, responding to agitation led by reformers like Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

Limited Impact

• While these reforms represented humanitarian efforts, they only scratched the surface of India's social system and had minimal impact on the majority of the population.
• The British administration faced limitations in enacting more extensive reforms due to the complexities of Indian society and the constraints of foreign governance.
• Despite their limitations, these measures marked significant steps towards addressing some of the most egregious social injustices in colonial India.

In summary, the British administration's humanitarian measures, while commendable, were constrained by cultural sensitivities and the challenges of governing a diverse and complex society.

Spread of Modern Education

The British administration in India played a significant role in the dissemination of modern education, although various other actors also contributed to this transformation:

Early Initiatives

• During the initial 60 years of British rule under the East India Company, education received minimal attention, except for the establishment of the Calcutta Madrasah in 1781 and the Sanskrit College in Varanasi in 1791, aimed at producing qualified individuals for legal administration.
• Pressure from missionaries, humanitarian activists, and enlightened Indians prompted the British authorities to consider promoting modern secular education.

Controversies and Policy Shifts

• A debate ensued regarding the allocation of resources for education, with some advocating for the exclusive promotion of Western studies and others emphasizing the expansion of traditional Indian learning.
• The question of the medium of instruction, whether English or Indian languages, also sparked disagreement.
• In 1835, the Government of India decided to focus on teaching Western sciences and literature exclusively in English, dismissing Indian languages as insufficiently developed.

Implementation and Criticisms

• Lord Macaulay, a member of the Governor-General's Council, argued for the superiority of European knowledge and advocated for English as the medium of instruction.
• The government quickly adopted English as the medium of instruction in schools and colleges, neglecting the education of the masses and focusing on higher education.
• The "downward filtration theory" rationalized the concentration of educational resources on the upper and middle classes, expecting them to disseminate modern ideas among the masses.

Secretary of State's Educational Dispatch of 1854

• This dispatch urged the Government of India to assume responsibility for mass education, repudiating the downward filtration theory.
• Departments of Education were established in provinces, and affiliating Universities were founded in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.

Underlying Motives

• The British educational policy was primarily driven by the need for a cheap supply of educated Indians to fill administrative and commercial positions, reducing reliance on costly imports of British personnel.
• Western education was also viewed as a means to expand the market for British goods in India and to consolidate British political authority by assimilating educated Indians into English-speaking, Westernized elites.

Weaknesses and Limitations

• The neglect of mass education resulted in persistently high illiteracy rates, with only a small percentage of the population receiving formal education.
• The emphasis on English as the medium of instruction widened the gap between the educated elite and the masses, hindering the spread of education to rural areas and among lower socio-economic groups.
• Girls' education was particularly neglected, with few opportunities available for female students, reflecting both cultural biases and practical considerations regarding employment.
• Scientific and technical education also suffered from neglect, with limited institutions offering such training, primarily accessible to Europeans and Eurasians.
• Financial constraints severely limited government spending on education, hindering efforts to address these shortcomings and expand educational opportunities.

Despite these weaknesses, the spread of modern education contributed to the dissemination of modern ideas in India and facilitated its modernization, albeit with significant disparities and shortcomings.