Bipan Chandra Summary: Growth of New India Religious & Social Reform after 1858 | Famous Books for UPSC Exam (Summary & Tests) PDF Download

Growth of New India Religious and Social Reform After 1858

The period following 1858 witnessed a surge in nationalist fervor and a push for democratic principles in India. This era also marked significant movements aimed at reforming and modernizing social institutions and religious beliefs. These reforms were seen as essential for the holistic development of the nation and the fostering of national unity. Various factors contributed to this wave of reform, including:

Nationalist Sentiments and Democratic Ideals

• The growing sense of nationalism among Indians fueled a desire for societal change and progress.
• Demands for democracy and self-governance highlighted the need to reform archaic social structures and religious practices.

Educational Advancements and Western Influence

• The spread of education, particularly Western education, exposed Indians to modern ideas and philosophies.
• Western culture and values influenced perceptions of traditional Indian customs, prompting calls for reform.

Economic Developments

• The emergence of new economic forces underscored the necessity of adapting societal norms to accommodate changing economic landscapes.
• Rising economic aspirations among Indians demanded social reforms to facilitate progress and prosperity.

Increase in Global Awareness

• Advancements in communication and transportation facilitated greater exposure to global events and ideologies.
• Awareness of global standards and practices highlighted the inadequacies of traditional Indian society, prompting calls for reform.

Impact of Reformers' Voices

• Figures like Keshub Chandra Sen and Swami Vivekananda eloquently articulated the need for reform through their writings and speeches.
• Sen and Vivekananda highlighted the decline of Indian society and advocated for sweeping changes to address social, religious, and economic disparities.

These factors converged to broaden the scope of earlier reform movements initiated by figures like Raja Rammohun Roy and Pandit Vidyasagar. The post-1858 era saw a continuation and intensification of efforts to modernize Indian society and promote social equality.

Religious Reform

Amidst the wave of modernization and nationalist fervor in post-1858 India, there emerged a strong desire among thoughtful Indians to reform traditional religious practices to align them with the ideals of science, democracy, and nationalism. Several reform movements sought to adapt and remodel traditional religions to meet the evolving needs of Indian society.

Brahmo Samaj

• The Brahmo tradition, initiated by Raja Rammohun Roy, was continued by figures like Devendranath Tagore and Keshub Chandra Sen.
• The Brahmo Samaj aimed to reform Hinduism by discarding perceived abuses and emphasizing monotheism based on the Vedas and Upanishads.
• It integrated elements of modern Western thought and emphasized human reason as the ultimate arbiter of religious truth, rejecting the need for a priestly class.
• The movement opposed idolatry, superstition, and rituals associated with the Brahmanical system, advocating for a direct relationship between individuals and God.
• Socially, the Brahmo Samaj played a significant role in advocating for the abolition of the caste system, supporting widow remarriage, and promoting education for both men and women.
• Although the Brahmo Samaj faced internal dissent and its influence was primarily limited to urban educated groups, it exerted a profound impact on the intellectual, social, cultural, and political landscape of Bengal and India in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Brahmo Samaj's efforts exemplified a broader movement towards religious and social reform in India, driven by a commitment to modernize and adapt traditional practices to the changing needs of society.

Religious Reform in Maharashtra

Religious reform efforts in Bombay began as early as 1840 with the establishment of the Parmahans Mandali, which aimed to combat idolatry and the caste system. Notably, Western India saw the emergence of Gopal Hari Deshmukh, also known as 'Lokahitwadi', as one of the earliest religious reformers. Deshmukh, writing in Marathi, launched rationalist attacks on Hindu orthodoxy and advocated for religious and social equality.

Gopal Hari Deshmukh's Contributions

• Deshmukh critiqued the ignorance and arrogance of priests and pandits, emphasizing the importance of understanding religious teachings rather than blindly repeating them.
• He questioned the basis of Brahminical superiority and advocated for the equality of all individuals in acquiring knowledge.

Following Deshmukh's pioneering efforts, the Prarthana Samaj emerged in Maharashtra with the aim of reforming Hindu religious practices in light of modern knowledge. This movement, influenced by the Brahmo Samaj, advocated for monotheism, caste equality, and the reduction of priestly dominance in religious affairs.

Prarthana Samaj and its Leaders

• Key figures like R.G. Bhandarkar, a renowned Sanskrit scholar and historian, and Mahadev Govind Ranade played significant roles in leading the Prarthana Samaj.
• The movement sought to liberate religion from caste-based orthodoxies and encouraged the worship of one God.
• Prarthana Samaj's influence extended to South India, particularly through the efforts of Telugu reformer Viresalingam.

Additionally, Maharashtra became a hub for rationalist thinking, with intellectuals like Gopal Ganesh Agarkar advocating for the supremacy of human reason over blind adherence to tradition.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar's Rationalism

• Agarkar vehemently criticized blind adherence to tradition and the uncritical glorification of India's past.
• He championed the power of human reason as a means to challenge orthodoxies and drive societal progress.

These reform movements in Maharashtra, spearheaded by individuals like Deshmukh, Bhandarkar, Ranade, and Agarkar, played a crucial role in reshaping religious thought and fostering a more egalitarian and rationalistic society.

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Theosophical Society

The Theosophical Society was established in the United States by Madame H. P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott. After its foundation, they shifted the headquarters of the society to Adyar near Madras in 1886. The movement gained momentum in India under the leadership of Mrs. Annie Besant, who arrived in India in 1893. Theosophists advocated for the revival and strengthening of ancient religions like Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. They emphasized the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul and promoted the idea of universal brotherhood among humanity.

Impact and Contribution

• The Theosophical movement, led by Westerners, played a role in bolstering Indian confidence by glorifying the country's religious and philosophical traditions.
• While their efforts aimed at religious revivalism were not highly successful, they contributed to India's sense of pride in its historical greatness, albeit sometimes leading to a sense of false pride.
• One significant achievement of Mrs. Besant in India was the establishment of the Central Hindu School in Benaras, later developed into the Benaras Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.

Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh School

Religious reform movements were relatively late among Muslims in India. The Muslim upper classes had initially shunned Western education and culture, but after the Revolt of 1857, modern ideas of religious reform began to gain traction. One of the prominent reformers was Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), profoundly influenced by modern scientific thought.

Reforms and Contributions of Sayyid Ahmad Khan

• Sayyid Ahmad Khan advocated for the reconciliation of modern scientific knowledge with Islam, emphasizing the Quran as the authoritative text and interpreting it in light of contemporary rationalism and science.
• He vehemently opposed blind obedience to tradition, ignorance, and irrationalism, advocating for a critical approach and freedom of thought.
• As an advocate of modern education, he founded schools and translated Western books into Urdu. In 1875, he established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh, later evolving into the Aligarh Muslim University, to promote Western sciences and culture.
• Sayyid Ahmad Khan advocated for religious toleration and unity between Hindus and Muslims, believing in the underlying unity of all religions and condemning religious bigotry.
• In the social sphere, he campaigned for the improvement of women's status, the removal of purdah, and the spread of education among women, also condemning practices like polygamy and easy divorce.

Contributions of the Aligarh School

• Sayyid Ahmad Khan was supported by a group of loyal followers collectively known as the Aligarh School, including notable figures like Chiragh Ali, Altaf Husain Hali, Nazir Ahmad, and Maulana Shibli Nomani.

Despite his contributions, Sayyid Ahmad Khan's political strategy of prioritizing education over immediate political progress and his reluctance to confront orthodox Muslims had unintended consequences, including the exacerbation of communal tensions in later years.

Muhammad Iqbal

Muhammad Iqbal, one of the greatest poets of modern India, left a profound impact not only through his poetry but also through his philosophical and religious outlook, particularly among the younger generation of Muslims and Hindus. His ideas paralleled those of Swami Vivekananda in emphasizing the importance of constant change and ceaseless activity, condemning resignation, contemplation, and quiet contentment.

Humanism and Dynamic Outlook

• Iqbal advocated for a dynamic outlook that prioritized action and change over passive acceptance of the status quo.
• He elevated human action to the status of a prime virtue, emphasizing the control of the world through constant activity and rejecting submission to nature or external powers.
• Passive acceptance of things as they were, according to Iqbal, was viewed as deeply sinful.

Rejection of Ritualism and Asceticism

• Condemning ritualism, asceticism, and otherworldly attitudes, Iqbal urged individuals to work towards and achieve happiness in the present world rather than seeking it in transcendental or spiritual realms.

Evolution of Ideals

• In his earlier poetry, Iqbal extolled patriotism, celebrating the virtues of love for one's nation and dedication to its progress.
• However, his views evolved over time, and later in his career, he leaned towards advocating for Muslim separatism.

Iqbal's philosophical and poetic contributions underscored the importance of dynamic action, human agency, and the pursuit of worldly happiness. While his earlier emphasis on patriotism resonated with the broader nationalist sentiment, his later advocacy for Muslim separatism reflected the evolving political landscape of India.

Religious Reform among the Parsis

Religious reform among the Parsis in Bombay began in the mid-19th century with the establishment of the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association in 1851. This association was founded by prominent figures like Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee, and others. Its primary objective was to challenge the entrenched orthodoxy within the Parsi community and initiate modernization in various aspects of Parsi social customs.

Objectives of the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha

• The association campaigned against the conservative elements dominating religious practices among the Parsis.
• It aimed to modernize Parsi social customs, particularly regarding the education and social position of women, as well as practices related to marriage.

Impact on Parsi Society

• Over time, the efforts of the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha led to significant changes within the Parsi community.
• Parsis became one of the most westernized sections of Indian society, primarily due to the influence of these reformist movements.

The initiatives of the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha marked a significant shift in the religious and social landscape of the Parsi community, paving the way for greater modernization and progress in various spheres of Parsi life.

Religious Reform among the Sikhs

Religious reform among the Sikhs commenced towards the end of the 19th century with the establishment of the Khalsa College in Amritsar. However, the reform movement gained significant momentum after 1920 with the emergence of the Akali Movement in Punjab.

The Akali Movement

• The primary objective of the Akalis was to purify the management of Sikh shrines, known as gurdwaras, which had been endowed with considerable land and wealth but were being autocratically managed by corrupt and selfish leaders known as mahants.
• In 1921, the Sikh masses, led by the Akalis, launched a powerful Satyagraha against the corrupt practices of the mahants, often facing resistance from both the mahants and the government.
• As a result of their efforts, the government passed the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922, which was later amended in 1925, giving greater control to the Sikh community over the management of gurdwaras.
• Through direct action and legal measures, the Sikhs were able to remove corrupt mahants from the gurdwaras, despite facing significant challenges and sacrifices, including loss of lives.

Other Religious Reform Movements

Apart from the discussed reform movements and individual reformers, several other similar movements and individuals emerged during the 19th and 20th centuries, contributing to the religious and social reform landscape of India.

Underlying Unity of Religious Reform Movements

• Most religious reform movements were rooted in the principles of Reason (Rationalism) and Humanism, aiming to free society from anti-intellectual religious dogmas and blind faith.
• These movements appealed primarily to the rising middle classes, expressing their aspirations for modernization and progress.

Critique of Appeals to the Past

• Some reformers appealed to tradition and claimed to revive ancient doctrines and practices, but this often led to conflicts and divisions within society.
• Appeals to the past sometimes conflicted with modern scientific knowledge and hindered progress, fostering divisions based on religion and caste.

Humanist Aspect of Reform Movements

• Religious reform movements attacked priesthood and rituals, emphasizing the individual's right to interpret religious scriptures in light of reason and human welfare.
• They promoted a new humanitarian morality, advocating for progress and social welfare as essential values.

Impact on Indian Society

• Religious reform movements instilled greater self-respect, self-confidence, and pride in Indian heritage, enabling Indians to engage with the modern world.
• They facilitated the adoption of a modern, secular, and national outlook, though they primarily catered to the educated urban strata of society.

Negative Aspects

• Reform movements often catered to a small percentage of the population and overlooked the vast masses, perpetuating traditional customs among them.
• Some movements tended to glorify the past and rely excessively on scriptural authority, undermining the supremacy of human reason and scientific outlook.

Contribution to Communal Consciousness

• While promoting national unity, religious reform movements also contributed to the rise of communal consciousness, fostering divisions along religious lines.
• This phenomenon hindered the evolution of a composite culture and accelerated communal tensions among different religious communities.

Social Reform

The 19th century witnessed a significant wave of social reform in India, driven by the burgeoning national awakening and the increasing influence of educated individuals who revolted against rigid social conventions and outdated customs.

Inspiration for Social Reform

• The revolt against irrational and dehumanizing social practices was inspired by humanistic ideals of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals.

Contributors to Social Reform

• Nearly all religious reformers contributed to the social reform movement, as many backward features of Indian society, such as the caste system and inequality of sexes, had religious sanctions in the past.
• Organizations like the Social Conference, Servants of India Society, and Christian missionaries actively worked for social reform.
• Prominent individuals such as Jotiba Govind Phule, Justice Ranade, B.R. Ambedkar, and others played crucial roles in driving social reform efforts.

National Movement and Social Reform

• In the 20th century, especially after 1919, the national movement became the primary advocate of social reform, utilizing Indian languages and various forms of media to spread their message to the masses.

Secular Approach to Social Reform

• While social reform initially had religious ties in the 19th century, it gradually became more secular in approach, with participation from individuals of various religious backgrounds.

Expansion of Social Reform

• Initially driven by newly educated individuals from higher castes, social reform eventually penetrated down to lower strata of society, revolutionizing and reconstructing the social sphere.
• The ideas and ideals of the reformers eventually gained widespread acceptance and are enshrined in the Indian Constitution today.

Objectives of Social Reform Movements

Social reform movements primarily aimed to achieve two main objectives:

Emancipation of Women

• Extension of equal rights to women and efforts towards their emancipation from societal constraints.

Removal of Caste Rigidities

• Abolition of caste rigidities, particularly the eradication of untouchability and other discriminatory practices based on caste.

Emancipation of Women

For centuries, women in India were subordinated to men and subjected to social oppression, with various religious practices and personal laws consigning them to an inferior status. Social reform movements emerged to challenge these inequities and improve the position of women.

Social Status of Women in Traditional India

• Upper class women faced worse conditions than peasant women, who often had more freedom and rights within their families.
• Women were primarily seen as wives and mothers, with limited individual expression or rights.
• Practices like polygamy, purdah, child marriage, and restrictions on widow remarriage were prevalent.
• Both Hindu and Muslim women faced similar social and economic dependence on men.

Initiatives of Social Reformers

• Social reformers appealed to doctrines of individualism, equality, and reinterpretations of religious teachings to advocate for women's rights.
• Efforts were made to spread education among women, encourage widow remarriage, abolish child marriage, and promote gender equality.
• Organizations like the Dufferin hospitals aimed to provide modern medical care for women.

Role of Women in the National Movement

• Women actively participated in the struggle for independence, engaging in protests, boycotts, and political activism.
• Their involvement in the national movement challenged notions of female inferiority and contributed to their emancipation.

Birth of the Women's Movement

• In the 1920s, women began leading their own efforts for gender equality, establishing organizations like the All India Women's Conference.

Legal Reforms and Post-Independence

• The Indian Constitution (1950) guaranteed equality for men and women, and subsequent legal reforms aimed to address gender disparities.
• Legislation such as the Hindu Succession Act (1955) and Hindu Marriage Act (1955) aimed to promote gender equality in inheritance and marital rights.
• Despite legal advancements, challenges such as dowry practices and employment discrimination remain, but the combined efforts of social reform movements, the freedom struggle, women's movements, and post-independence legislation have contributed to progress in women's emancipation.

Struggle Against Caste

The caste system in India was a target of significant criticism and opposition by the social reform movement. Dividing Hindus into numerous castes, it determined various aspects of individuals' lives, including marriage, dining, profession, and social status.

Social Discrimination and Inequality

• The caste system imposed severe restrictions and disabilities on the untouchables or scheduled castes, who constituted about 20% of the Hindu population.
• Untouchables faced social segregation, impurity stigma, restricted access to resources like water sources and temples, and limited opportunities for education and employment.

Evils of the Caste System

• Besides being dehumanizing and based on birth-based inequality, the caste system fragmented society and hindered national unity and democratic principles.
• Caste consciousness, including practices like untouchability, existed among Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs as well, albeit in milder forms.

Undermining Forces and Reforms

• British rule introduced modern industries, railways, urbanization, and equality before the law, challenging traditional caste barriers and promoting economic opportunities for all.
• Various reform movements, including the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Arya Samaj, criticized the caste system and advocated for social equality.

Role of the National Movement

• The national movement opposed caste-based discrimination, fostering unity among Indians regardless of caste differences.
• Participation in nationalist activities weakened caste consciousness, as the struggle for freedom promoted principles of liberty and equality.

Leadership and Initiatives

• Mahatma Gandhi consistently advocated for the abolition of untouchability and founded the All India Harijan Sevak Sangh in 1932.
• Various individuals and organizations worked to spread education among the oppressed classes, open access to public spaces, and challenge social disabilities.

Empowerment and Movements

• With education and awareness, lower castes began to assert their rights and organized movements against caste oppression, led by figures like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
• Satyagraha movements were organized to challenge discriminatory practices, including temple entry restrictions.

Post-Independence Reforms

• The Indian Constitution (1950) legally abolished untouchability and prohibited caste-based discrimination, providing a framework for social justice and equality.
• However, the eradication of caste-based discrimination remains a pressing challenge, especially in rural areas, requiring continued efforts towards social reform and equality.