Bipan Chandra Summary: Growth of New India - The Nationalist Movement (1858-1905) | Famous Books for UPSC Exam (Summary & Tests) PDF Download

Growth of New India—the Nationalist Movement 1858-1905

Introduction

The period between 1858 and 1905 in India marked a significant turning point characterized by the emergence of national political consciousness and the organized national movement. This era witnessed the birth of the Indian National Congress in 1885, which played a pivotal role in spearheading the struggle for independence from British colonial rule, culminating in India's freedom on August 15, 1947.

Consequences of Foreign Domination

Foreign domination, particularly British rule, acted as the catalyst for the growth of Indian nationalism. The conditions under British rule fueled the development of national sentiment among the Indian populace. British policies, primarily geared towards serving British interests, often disregarded the welfare of the Indian people, leading to a clash of interests.

• The Clash of Interests: British rule in India prioritized British gain over Indian welfare, leading to a realization among Indians that their interests were being subordinated to those of foreign powers. This understanding gradually fostered anti-imperialist sentiments.
• Economic Backwardness: British rule exacerbated India's economic backwardness, hindering its further development in various spheres such as economic, social, cultural, intellectual, and political. Indians increasingly recognized the impediments posed by colonial rule to India's progress.

Impact on Different Sections of Society

Peasants

• Exploitation by Landlords: The peasantry suffered under British rule due to oppressive land revenue policies, favoritism towards landlords, and exploitation by merchants and money-lenders.
• Suppression of Resistance: Attempts by peasants to resist oppression were met with repression by colonial authorities, further fueling discontent.

Artisans and Handicraftsmen

• Impact of Foreign Competition: The artisan class faced economic ruin due to foreign competition facilitated by British policies, which neglected their rehabilitation.

Modern Workers

• Capitalist Exploitation: Workers in modern industries found themselves exploited by capitalists, with the government siding with the latter against labor movements.
• Need for Industrialization: Workers realized that only an independent government could address growing unemployment and promote industrialization, essential for their economic well-being.

Educational and Social Issues

• Lack of Political Rights: Various sections of society, including peasants, artisans, and workers, lacked political rights and saw little improvement in their intellectual or cultural conditions under British rule.
• Education Barriers: Limited access to education, especially higher education, and social and economic oppression, particularly for lower castes, further fueled discontent.

Educated Indians

• Disillusionment: Educated Indians, initially hopeful that British rule would modernize India, grew disillusioned as they witnessed economic exploitation, restricted political freedoms, and cultural suppression.
• Unemployment: Growing unemployment among the educated class underscored the need for economic and cultural development and freedom from foreign control to provide better employment opportunities.

Indian Capitalists

• Impact of Imperialism: Indian capitalists recognized that British policies, favoring foreign capitalists and hindering their growth, posed a significant obstacle to their economic development.
• National Economic Growth: They realized that only a national government could create conditions conducive to the rapid development of Indian trade and industries.

Zamindars, Landlords, and Princes

• Support for British Rule: While these classes generally supported British rule due to shared interests, some individuals within these classes also joined the nationalist movement, driven by patriotism and opposition to racial dominance.
• Nationalist Reaction: The foreign character of British rule generated a nationalist reaction among Indians, as foreign domination tends to evoke patriotic sentiments among subject peoples.

Conclusion

The growth of Indian nationalism during this period was a response to the adverse impact of foreign imperialism on various segments of Indian society. It was a national movement that united people from different classes and sections against the common enemy of colonial rule, driven by a shared desire for political, economic, and cultural independence.

Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country

Introduction

During the 19th and 20th centuries, India experienced administrative and economic unification under British rule, fostering nationalist sentiments among the populace.

• Uniform System of Government: British administration gradually introduced a uniform and modern system of governance across India, administratively unifying the country.
• Economic Integration: The destruction of rural and local economies and the introduction of modern trade and industries on a national scale interconnected India's economic life. Events such as famine in one region affected prices and food availability nationwide.
• Transport and Communication: The introduction of railways, telegraphs, and a unified postal system facilitated national integration by bringing different parts of the country closer and promoting mutual contact among the people, including leaders.
• Anti-Imperialist Sentiment: Foreign rule, particularly British rule, acted as a unifying factor as people across the country experienced similar oppression under the same enemy, fostering a common national outlook against imperialism.

Western Thought and Education

Spread of Modern Education

• Impact of Western Education: The spread of modern western education during the 19th century instilled in a large number of Indians a modern, rational, secular, democratic, and nationalist political outlook.
• Political Inspiration: Educated Indians studied and admired European nationalist movements, with thinkers like Rousseau, Paine, and Mill influencing their political ideologies.

Leadership and Organization

• Role of Educated Indians: Educated Indians were the first to feel the humiliation of foreign subjugation and actively engaged in studying the detrimental effects of foreign rule. The best among them emerged as leaders and organizers of the nationalist movement.
• Modern Education and Nationalism: While modern education did not create the nationalist movement, it enabled educated Indians to adopt western thought and assume leadership roles in the movement, giving it a democratic and modern direction.

Language and Uniformity

• English Language Role: English became a crucial medium for the spread of modern ideas and facilitated communication and exchange of ideas among educated Indians from different linguistic regions.
• Uniformity in Education: Modern education standardized courses of study across the country, leading to a certain uniformity and community of outlook and interests among educated Indians.

Nationalist Agitation

• Advocacy for Vernacular Languages: Indian political leaders advocated for a greater role for Indian languages in the educational system, recognizing the importance of indigenous languages in spreading modern ideas among the common people.
• Spread of Modern Ideas: Modern ideas spread faster and deeper through the developing Indian languages and the growing literature in them, along with the popular Indian language press.

In conclusion, administrative and economic unification under British rule, combined with the spread of modern education and western thought, played significant roles in fostering nationalist sentiments and the emergence of a unified Indian identity during the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Role of the Press and Literature

Press as a Tool of Nationalism

The press played a crucial role in spreading the message of patriotism and modern ideas across India during the 19th century. Numerous nationalist newspapers emerged, criticizing official policies, advocating for Indian interests, and popularizing concepts of self-government, democracy, and industrialization.

• Scope of Critique: Nationalist newspapers openly criticized British policies, advocated for Indian unity, and promoted modern ideas among the populace.
• Regional Representation: Newspapers like the Hindu Patriot, Amrita Bazar Patrika, and Rast Goftar, among others, provided platforms for nationalist discourse across different regions of India.

Role of National Literature

National literature, including novels, essays, and patriotic poetry, also contributed significantly to arousing national consciousness. Writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, and Bharatendu Harishchandra showcased India's cultural heritage and inspired pride in the nation.

• Nationalist Writers: Prominent nationalist writers across various languages highlighted India's cultural richness and historical achievements, fostering a sense of national pride and identity.
• Rediscovery of India's Past: Nationalist leaders countered British propaganda about India's incapacity for self-rule by highlighting the nation's rich cultural heritage and political achievements of rulers like Ashoka and Akbar.

Racial Arrogance of the Rulers

Racial Discrimination

The racial superiority complex adopted by many Englishmen in their interactions with Indians served as a significant factor in fostering nationalist sentiments. Racial prejudice manifested in various forms, including insults, assaults, and biased judicial treatment.

• Legal Discrimination: Instances of injustice, where Englishmen received lenient sentences for crimes against Indians, highlighted systemic bias and fueled resentment.
• Social Exclusion: Indians faced exclusion from European clubs and segregation on trains, reinforcing feelings of national humiliation and solidarity against British rule.

Immediate Factors

Lytton's Viceroyalty

Lord Lytton's administration intensified discontent among Indians through policies perceived as detrimental to Indian interests. His actions, such as removing import duties on British textiles and burdening India with the cost of imperialist wars, provoked widespread nationalist agitation.

• Economic Exploitation: Lytton's policies, such as removing import duties on British textiles, were seen as attempts to destroy India's nascent textile industry, sparking anger and agitation.
• Political Suppression: Measures like the Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act further fueled nationalist sentiment by suppressing criticism of British rule and disarming the populace.

Ilbert Bill Controversy

The Ilbert Bill controversy under Lord Ripon's viceroyalty exposed racial discrimination in the legal system and galvanized Indian efforts for equality. The agitation against the bill highlighted the degradation of Indian status under British rule and the necessity for organized national resistance.

• Racial Discrimination: European opposition to the Ilbert Bill revealed deep-seated racial biases and reinforced Indian perceptions of their inferior status under British rule.
• Organized Resistance: Indians rallied in support of the Ilbert Bill, recognizing the need for national unity and continuous agitation to effect change in government policies.

In conclusion, the press, literature, racial arrogance of rulers, and immediate political factors all played crucial roles in fostering nationalist sentiments and catalyzing organized resistance against British colonial rule in India during the 19th century.

Predecessors of the Indian National Congress

Early Associations

Before the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, several precursor organizations laid the groundwork for nationalist sentiments and political activism in India. These included:

• Landholders' Society: Formed in 1837, it aimed to promote the interests of landlords in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Bengal British Indian Society: Founded in 1843, it sought to protect and advance general public interests in Bengal.
• Rritish India Association: Emerged in 1851 by merging the Landholders' Society and Bengal British Indian Society, focusing on reforms and Indian demands.
• Regional Associations: Organizations like the Madras Native Association and the Bombay Association were established in 1852, addressing local issues and advocating for administrative reforms.

Political Awakening and Criticism

As educated Indians grew critical of British rule post-1858, existing associations no longer met their political aspirations. The period saw a gradual shift towards more politically active organizations, such as:

• East India Association: Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London in 1866, it aimed to discuss the Indian question and influence British policymakers for Indian welfare.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: Organized by Justice Ranade and others in 1870, it focused on critiquing administrative and legislative measures, particularly in Poona.
• Indian Association of Calcutta: Established in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjea and others, it sought to address broader public issues and unify Indians on political platforms.

Foundation of the Indian National Congress

The establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a significant milestone in India's political evolution. A.O. Hume, with the cooperation of Indian leaders, convened the first session in Bombay with the following objectives:

• Promotion of Unity: To foster friendly relations and national unity among political workers from diverse backgrounds.
• Advocacy for Indian Interests: To formulate popular demands and present them to the British government, addressing issues of political and economic advancement.
• Training of Public Opinion: To organize and mobilize public opinion in India, providing a platform for peaceful political activism.

The "Safety Valve" Theory

While A.O. Hume's role in founding the Congress was instrumental, his motivations were multifaceted. One theory suggests that the Congress served as a "safety valve" to channel growing discontent among educated Indians peacefully, thus averting the potential for mass rebellion against British rule.

• Preventing Unrest: Concerns about potential uprisings prompted British officials to support the Congress as a means to manage and mitigate Indian discontent.
• Facilitating Political Expression: The Congress provided a platform for politically conscious Indians to express their grievances and pursue peaceful avenues for reform.

Evolution of the Congress

Despite initial skepticism and challenges, the Indian National Congress gradually evolved into a representative body of political workers across India. Subsequent sessions saw increased participation and diversification of membership, symbolizing the growing momentum of India's struggle for freedom.

• Expansion and Inclusivity: Over time, the Congress expanded its reach, welcoming delegates from various professions, regions, and even genders, reflecting the broad-based nature of India's nationalist movement.
• Role of Key Figures: Leaders like Surendranath Banerjea, Dadabhai Naoroji, and others played pivotal roles in shaping the Congress and mobilizing support for the nationalist cause.

In essence, the Indian National Congress emerged as a pivotal force in India's quest for freedom, laying the foundation for a unified and organized struggle against British colonial rule.

Constitutional Reforms

Early Nationalist Demands

The early nationalists in India aimed for a larger role in governing their own country, appealing to democratic principles. However, their initial demands were moderate, focusing on gradual steps towards autonomy while being cautious not to provoke harsh government repression.

• Moderate Demands: Nationalists sought expansion and reform of Legislative Councils, rather than immediate independence.
• Cautious Approach: They advocated for incremental progress, fearing government crackdowns on their activities.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

The nationalist agitation forced the British government to pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892, addressing some of the demands for council reform but falling short of nationalist expectations.

• Increased Council Membership: The Act expanded the number of members in both the Imperial Legislative Council and provincial councils.
• Indirect Representation: Some council members could be indirectly elected by Indians, but the majority remained officials appointed by the British government.
• Limited Powers: Although councils gained the right to discuss annual budgets, they lacked the authority to vote on them.

Nationalist Dissatisfaction

Nationalists were discontent with the Act of 1892, viewing it as inadequate in granting Indians meaningful representation and powers within the councils.

• Call for Greater Participation: Nationalists demanded more Indian representation in councils and sought broader powers for elected members.
• Slogan for Empowerment: Inspired by the American cry for independence, nationalists rallied behind the slogan "No taxation without representation," emphasizing the need for Indian control over financial matters.

Advancement of Swarajya

As the 20th century dawned, nationalist leaders like Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji pushed for the concept of swarajya, or self-government, within the British Empire, mirroring models seen in self-governing colonies like Australia and Canada.

• Quest for Self-Government: Nationalist leaders advocated for autonomy akin to that enjoyed by other British colonies, asserting the right to govern themselves within the empire.
• Congress Platform: The Indian National Congress became a platform for articulating the demand for swarajya, marking a significant shift towards more assertive nationalist goals.

In summary, the early stages of constitutional reforms in India saw nationalists advocating for gradual steps towards increased representation and autonomy within the British colonial framework, eventually leading to demands for self-government akin to that enjoyed by other British colonies.

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