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Struggle for Swaraj - 1 (1919-1927)

New Phase of National Movement (1919)

• A new phase of the national movement commenced in 1919, characterized by popular mass movements.

Political Situation during the War Years (1914-1918)

• During the years of World War I (1914-1918), a new political situation emerged.
• Nationalism gained momentum as various forces aligned, anticipating significant political gains post-war.
• There was a readiness among nationalists to resist if their post-war expectations were not met.

Economic Challenges Post-War

• The economic situation deteriorated in the aftermath of World War I.
• Unfavorable economic conditions added to the grievances of the populace, contributing to the nationalist fervor.

Impact of World Events on Nationalism

• The First World War served as a catalyst for nationalism across Asia and Africa.
• The Russian Revolution of 1917, led by VI. Lenin and the Bolshevik Party, significantly influenced global nationalist movements.
• The establishment of the Soviet Union as the first socialist state inspired anti-imperialist sentiments worldwide.

Impact of Russian Revolution on India

• The Russian Revolution electrified the colonial world, including India.
• The Soviet regime's renunciation of imperialist rights in China and other Asian regions resonated with Indian nationalists.

Global Nationalist Agitations

• Post-war, nationalist movements surged across the Afro-Asian world.
• India's nationalist movement was part of a larger global wave of anti-colonial agitations.

These developments laid the groundwork for a new phase of the struggle for self-rule in India, marked by mass mobilization and heightened anti-colonial sentiments.

The Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms

Introduction to the Reforms

• In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, introduced a scheme of constitutional reforms.
• These reforms culminated in the Government of India Act of 1919.

Provincial Legislative Councils

• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms aimed to expand the Provincial Legislative Councils.
• Under the reforms, a majority of council members were to be elected, thereby increasing representation.

Introduction of Dyarchy

• The system of Dyarchy was introduced, granting provincial governments increased powers.
• However, this system also provided for the Governor to override ministers on special grounds, undermining the authority of elected representatives.

Central Legislative Setup

• At the central level, the reforms proposed the establishment of two houses of legislature.
• The lower house, the Legislative Assembly, was to have a total strength of 144 members, with 41 members nominated.
• The upper house, the Council of State, was to consist of 26 members.
• The legislature had limited control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council, retaining significant power within the colonial administration.

Response from Veteran Leaders

• Some prominent leaders, such as Surendranath Banerjee, supported accepting the government's proposals.
• These leaders, favoring a more moderate approach, parted ways with the Congress and formed the Indian Liberal Federation.

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, while representing a step towards constitutional reform and limited self-governance, fell short of the aspirations of many nationalists who sought full autonomy and control over governance. The introduction of Dyarchy and the retention of significant power by colonial authorities tempered the impact of these reforms on the broader nationalist movement.

The Rowlatt Act

Introduction to the Act

• In March 1919, the Rowlatt Act was passed despite opposition from every Indian member of the Central Legislative Council.
• This Act conferred upon the government the authority to detain individuals without trial or conviction in a court of law.

Unrest and Agitation

• The passage of the Rowlatt Act sparked widespread unrest throughout the country.
• A powerful agitation emerged against the Act, reflecting the deep-seated grievances of the Indian populace.

Leadership of Mahatma Gandhi

• During the agitation against the Rowlatt Act, a new leader, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, emerged to command the nationalist movement.
• Gandhi was deeply moved by the implications of the Rowlatt Act and quickly became a central figure in the resistance.

Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act

• In response to the Rowlatt Act, Gandhi founded the Satyagraha Sabha in February 1919.
• Members of this Sabha pledged to disobey the Act and willingly court arrest and imprisonment as a form of protest.

Political Awakening in India

• March and April of 1919 witnessed a remarkable political awakening across India.
• The entire country experienced heightened activism, characterized by hartals (strikes), processions, and demonstrations.

The Rowlatt Act and the subsequent agitation against it marked a significant turning point in India's struggle for independence. Gandhi's leadership and the widespread participation of the Indian populace in acts of civil disobedience demonstrated a growing unity and resolve against oppressive colonial policies.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Government Response to Mass Agitation

• In response to the mass agitation against colonial policies, the government was determined to suppress dissent.
• Mahatma Gandhi called for a mighty hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919, which received overwhelming support from the people.

Events Leading to the Massacre

• On April 13, 1919, in Amritsar, Punjab, a large unarmed crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to protest against the arrest of their popular leaders, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
• General Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar, decided to use force to terrorize the populace into submission.

The Massacre

• General Dyer surrounded Jallianwala Bagh with his army unit and closed the exits with troops.
• He then ordered his men to open fire on the trapped crowd with rifles and machine guns.
• Thousands were killed and wounded in the brutal onslaught.

Aftermath and Martial Law

• Following the massacre, martial law was imposed throughout Punjab.
• The people of Punjab faced severe and uncivilized atrocities at the hands of the colonial authorities.

Reaction and Renunciation by Rabindranath Tagore

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre shocked the nation and drew widespread condemnation.
• Rabindranath Tagore, a renowned poet and humanist, expressed his outrage by renouncing his knighthood in protest against the brutality of the British rule.

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre stands as one of the darkest chapters in India's struggle for independence, symbolizing the ruthless oppression faced by the Indian people under British colonial rule. The event served to galvanize the nationalist movement, further fueling the determination to overthrow colonial domination and achieve freedom and self-rule.

The Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movement (1919-1922)

Formation of Khilafat Committee

• In response to the mistreatment of the Ottoman Empire by Britain and its allies, politically conscious Muslims formed the Khilafat Committee.
• Under the leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani, the Khilafat Committee organized a country-wide agitation.

All-India Khilafat Conference

• The All-India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands regarding the Ottoman Empire were not met.
• Leaders like Lokamanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat agitation as an opportunity to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity and integrate Muslim masses into the national movement.

Non-cooperation Movement

• In June 1920, an all-party conference convened in Allahabad approved a program of boycott, including schools, colleges, and law courts.
• The Khilafat Committee initiated a non-cooperation movement on August 31, 1920.
• In September 1920, the Congress held a special session in Calcutta, where it supported Gandhi's plan for non-cooperation until injustices in Punjab and Khilafat issues were addressed, and Swaraj (self-rule) was achieved.

Support for Non-cooperation

• Under the non-cooperation movement, people were urged to boycott government institutions, surrender official titles, practice handspinning and weaving for khadi, and boycott foreign goods.
• The Congress endorsed this decision during its annual session in Nagpur in December 1920.

Changes in Congress

• The Nagpur session also saw changes in the Congress constitution, with the reorganization of Provincial Congress Committees along linguistic lines and the establishment of a Working Committee.
• Membership fees were reduced to facilitate greater participation of the rural and urban poor.
• Some prominent leaders, including Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Annie Besant, left the Congress during this period.

Impact of Movement

• The movement witnessed mass participation and garnered significant financial support through initiatives like the Tilak Swarajya Fund.
• Boycott of foreign cloth and promotion of khadi became symbols of the struggle for freedom.
• The movement also spread to different regions, leading to strikes, demonstrations, and agitations.

Suspension of Movement

• Concerned about the potential for violence and the lack of understanding of non-violence among nationalist workers, Gandhi decided to suspend the nationalist campaign.
• The Congress Working Committee, meeting at Bardoli in Gujarat, passed a resolution halting activities that could lead to the breaking of laws.
• Gandhi's arrest by the government in March 1922 marked a turning point, with him being charged with spreading disaffection against the government and sentenced to six years in prison.

Legacy and Conclusion

• While the Khilafat question eventually lost relevance, the movement strengthened the resolve of the Indian people and instilled a sense of fearlessness in them.
• Gandhi's declaration that the fight initiated in 1920 was a "fight to the finish" reflected the enduring spirit of the nationalist movement.
• The movement, despite apparent setbacks, contributed to the strengthening of the national movement and laid the groundwork for future struggles against colonial rule.

The Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movement of 1919-1922 represented a significant phase in India's struggle for independence, characterized by mass mobilization, unity among diverse communities, and the adoption of non-violent resistance as a potent tool against colonial oppression.

The Swarajists

Post-Non-Cooperation Movement

• The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement left the nationalist ranks demoralized.
• A school of thought led by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new approach to political activity under the altered circumstances.

Formation of the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party

• C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru advocated ending the boycott of Legislative Councils, entering them, and obstructing their working to expose weaknesses and transform them into arenas of political struggle.
• Opposition from the 'no-changers' like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Ansari, and Babu Rajendra Prasad was met.
• In December 1922, Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party, which functioned as a group within the Congress.

Performance in Elections

• The Swarajists participated in Council elections in November 1923 and performed well despite limited preparation.
• They won 42 seats out of the 101 elected seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.

Achievements

• In March 1925, they successfully elected Vithalbhai J. Patel as the president (Speaker) of the Central Legislative Assembly.
• The Swarajists filled a political void and exposed the inadequacies of the 1919 Reform Act.

Setbacks and Challenges

• The death of C.R. Das in June 1925 dealt a blow to the Swarajist movement.
• Communal tensions increased, leading to repeated communal riots after 1923.
• Some groups, like the 'responsivists', including Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat Rai, cooperated with the government to safeguard perceived Hindu interests.

Gandhiji's Intervention

• Gandhiji, a staunch advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity, attempted to improve the situation through intervention.
• In September 1924, he undertook a 21-day fast at Delhi in Maulana Mohamed Ali's house to atone for the inhumanity revealed in communal riots, but with limited success.

Nationalism and Unity

• Nationalism spread when people began to perceive themselves as part of a unified nation.
• Collective belonging was fostered through shared struggles and cultural symbols.
• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's "Vande Mataram" played a significant role in shaping nationalist sentiment in the 1870s.

Despite challenges and setbacks, the Swarajist movement, with its focus on political engagement and participation, contributed to the ongoing struggle for independence and the quest for Hindu-Muslim unity within the nationalist movement.

Struggle for Swaraj-ii (1927-1947) Emergence of New Forces

Emergence of Socialism

• In 1927, the emergence of socialism marked a significant shift in the political landscape of India, with Marxist and socialist ideas spreading rapidly.
• This trend found reflection in the rise of a new left wing within the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.

Growth of Indian Youth Activism

• The Indian youth became increasingly active in political movements, as seen in the first All-Bengal Conference of Students held in August 1928, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Evolution of Revolutionary Movements

• Revolutionary movements, inspired by socialist ideals, gained momentum during this period.
• The Hindustan Republican Association, founded in October 1924, aimed at organizing armed revolution against British rule.
• Under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad, the organization changed its name to the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928.

Acts of Resistance and Sacrifice

• The brutal lathi-charge on an anti-Simon Commission demonstration in 1928 resulted in the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, triggering outrage among the youth.
• In response, Bhagat Singh, Azad, and Rajguru assassinated British police officer Saunders in December 1928, while Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly in April 1929.
• These actions were aimed at making a statement against British oppression and were accompanied by a deliberate surrender to authorities to utilize court trials for revolutionary propaganda.

Revolutionary Activities in Bengal

• Revolutionary activities in Bengal saw a well-planned armed raid on the government armoury at Chittagong in April 1930, led by Surya Sen.
• A remarkable aspect of these movements was the active participation of young women.
• Martyrdom and sacrifice were common among revolutionaries, exemplified by Jatin Das' epic 63-day hunger strike.

Execution of Revolutionaries and Continuing Struggle

• Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed on March 23, 1931, despite widespread protests.
• Bhagat Singh's last letters affirmed his faith in socialism and the continued struggle against exploitation by capitalists and landlords.
• Chandra Shekhar Azad was killed in a police encounter in February 1931, while Surya Sen was arrested and executed in 1933.
• Despite the crackdown by authorities, the spirit of resistance persisted, with hundreds of revolutionaries arrested and imprisoned.

The period from 1927 to 1947 witnessed the emergence of new forces in India's struggle for independence, characterized by the spread of socialist ideas, the activism of Indian youth, and the evolution of revolutionary movements. Despite sacrifices and setbacks, the determination to resist colonial rule remained steadfast, paving the way for future struggles and ultimately leading to India's independence in 1947.

Boycott of the Simon Commission

Appointment of the Simon Commission

• In November 1927, the British Government appointed the Indian Statutory Commission, commonly known as the Simon Commission, to examine further constitutional reform in India.
• All members of the Commission were Englishmen, sparking immediate outrage among Indians.

Indian Response

• The exclusion of Indians from the Commission and the notion of foreigners deciding India's self-government angered Indians.
• At the 1927 Madras session of the National Congress, presided over by Dr. Ansari, the decision to boycott the Simon Commission "at every stage and in every form" was made.
• The Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha also supported the Congress's decision to boycott the Commission.

The Nehru Report

• The Nehru Report, named after its chief architect Motilal Nehru, was finalized in August 1928 as a response to the Simon Commission.
• However, the All Party Convention held in Calcutta in December 1928 failed to pass the Nehru Report.

Protests and Demonstrations

• On February 3, the day the Simon Commission reached Bombay, an all-India hartal (strike) was organized.
• Wherever the Commission went, it was met with hartals and black-flag demonstrations, with slogans like "Simon Go Back".

The appointment of the Simon Commission and the exclusion of Indians from its membership sparked widespread protest and led to the decision of Indian political parties to boycott the Commission. The response included the formulation of the Nehru Report as an alternative proposal for constitutional reform. Despite the failure to pass the Nehru Report at the All Party Convention, the boycott of the Simon Commission was marked by widespread protests and demonstrations across India.

Poorna Swaraj

Gandhi's Return and Reconciliation

• Gandhi returned to active politics and attended the Calcutta session of the Congress in December 1928.
• He began to consolidate nationalist ranks, starting with reconciling the militant left wing of the Congress.

Appointment of Jawaharlal Nehru

• Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed as the President of the Congress at the historic Lahore session of 1929.
• This event symbolized a transition of leadership, as Nehru succeeded his father, Motilal Nehru, who was the Congress President in 1928.

Declaration of Poorna Swaraj

• At the Lahore session, the Congress passed a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj, or Complete Independence, as its objective.
• On December 31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag of freedom was hoisted.
• January 26, 1930, was designated as the first Independence Day, to be celebrated annually with a pledge to no longer submit to British rule.

The Civil Disobedience Movement

Initiation and Symbolism

• Gandhi initiated the Civil Disobedience Movement on March 12, 1930, with the historic Dandi March.
• Accompanied by 78 chosen followers, Gandhi marched approximately 375 km from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a village on the Gujarat sea-coast.
• On April 6, 1930, Gandhi reached Dandi and symbolically broke the salt law by picking up a handful of salt, signifying the Indian people's refusal to obey British-made laws and their rejection of British rule.

Gandhi's Declaration and Ideology

• Gandhi declared his intention to dismantle the British rule in India, attributing it to the moral, material, cultural, and spiritual ruination of the country.
• He emphasized non-violence as the cornerstone of the movement, stating that sedition had become his religion and that their struggle was non-violent.

Spread and Participation

• The movement rapidly spread across the country, with violations of salt laws followed by defiance of forest laws and refusal to pay rural chaukidari tax.
• People participated in hartals, demonstrations, boycotts of foreign goods, and tax refusal.
• A notable aspect was the widespread involvement of women, who left their homes to engage in satyagraha, picketing, and processions alongside men.

Regional and Minority Participation

• The movement extended to regions like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces, and even the northwestern frontier, involving communities like Pathans, Manipuris, and Nagas.
• Under Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan's leadership, Pathans formed the Khudai Khidmatgars or Red Shirts, committed to non-violence.
• Instances of bravery included Garhwali soldiers refusing to fire on non-violent demonstrators and Rani Gaidilieu's rebellion against foreign rule, resulting in her imprisonment.

Government Response and Negotiations

• The British government responded by imprisoning over 90,000 satyagrahis, declaring the Congress illegal, and imposing strict censorship on the nationalist press.
• In 1930, the First Round Table Conference was convened in London to discuss the Simon Commission Report, but it failed due to the Congress boycott.
• In March 1931, Gandhi negotiated with Lord Irwin, leading to the Gandhilrwin Pact, which conceded certain rights but fell short of major nationalist demands.

Continuation and Repression

• Despite efforts at negotiation, the Congress started a no-rent, no-tax campaign in December 1931.
• The new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, was determined to crush the Congress, resulting in Gandhi's arrest and the declaration of the Congress as illegal in January 1932.
• Over 100,000 satyagrahis were arrested, properties confiscated, nationalist literature banned, and newspapers censored.

Conclusion and Legacy

• The Civil Disobedience Movement gradually waned, officially suspended by the Congress in May 1933 and withdrawn in May 1934.
• Gandhi withdrew from active politics once again, leading to despair among some political activists, who deemed him a failed leader.
• The movement left a significant legacy in India's struggle for independence, showcasing the power of non-violent resistance and mass mobilization against colonial rule.

The Government of India Act, 1935

Background and Legislation

• The Third Round Table Conference in London in November 1932 led to the passing of the Government of India Act of 1935.
• The Act aimed to establish an All India Federation and a new system of government for the provinces based on provincial autonomy.

Features of the Act

• The federation would unite the provinces of British India and the Princely States, with a bicameral federal legislature where States had disproportionate weightage.
• Representatives of the states would be appointed directly by rulers, not elected by the people, and only 14% of the British Indian population had voting rights.
• The federal legislature had limited power, as defence and foreign affairs remained under British control, with the Governor-General appointed by the British Government and responsible to it.
• In the provinces, local power increased with ministers responsible to provincial assemblies overseeing provincial administration.
• However, Governors retained special powers, including vetoing legislative actions and legislating independently, with control over civil service and police.

Reactions and Elections

• The Act failed to satisfy nationalist aspirations as political and economic power remained concentrated in British hands.
• The federal part of the Act was never implemented, but the provincial part was operationalized.
• Despite opposition, the Congress contested elections under the Act in 1937, aiming to demonstrate its unpopularity.

Congress Success in Elections

• The Congress's election campaign received massive popular support, leading to a sweeping victory in most provinces in February 1937.
• Congress ministries were formed in seven out of eleven provinces, with coalition governments in two others.
• Only Bengal and Punjab had non-Congress ministries, led by the Unionist Party and a coalition of the Krishak Praja Party and the Muslim League, respectively.

Actions of Congress Ministries

• Under Congress ministries, support was extended to Khadi and other village industries, alongside encouragement of modern industries.
• A significant achievement was the firm handling of communal riots, demonstrating effective governance by the Congress-led administrations.