Bipan Chandra Summary: Struggle for Swaraj - 2 | Famous Books for UPSC Exam (Summary & Tests) PDF Download

Growth of Socialist Ideas

Economic Slump in the 1930s

• The 1930s marked a period of profound economic downturn, particularly initiated by the Great Depression in the United States in 1929.
• This economic crisis quickly spread across the globe, affecting capitalist economies worldwide.
• Consequences included a significant decline in production, foreign trade, and widespread unemployment.

Soviet Economic Success

• Contrary to the capitalist nations, the Soviet Union experienced economic prosperity during this period.
• Between 1929 and 1936, the Soviet Union successfully implemented the first two Five Year Plans, dramatically increasing industrial production.
• This stark contrast between capitalist failure and Soviet success drew attention to socialist ideas and economic planning as viable alternatives.

Role of Jawaharlal Nehru

• Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as a key figure in popularizing socialist visions within the Indian context.
• He played a crucial role in advocating for socialism within both the national movement and broader Indian society.
• Nehru's presidency in the Congress, from 1929 to 1937, reflected the growing influence of socialist ideas within the party.
• In his presidential address to the Lucknow Congress in 1936, Nehru urged the acceptance of socialism as the Congress's goal.

Nehru's Socialist Vision

• Nehru argued that political freedom must be accompanied by economic emancipation, particularly for the oppressed masses, including peasants and workers.
• He believed that socialism offered the most viable path to liberate the toiling masses from feudal exploitation.
• Nehru emphasized the scientific and economic understanding of socialism rather than a vague humanitarian notion.

Socialism and Communal Harmony

• Nehru saw socialism as a means to bridge communal divides and undermine the influence of reactionary communal leaders.
• He believed that by embracing socialism, the Congress could better connect with the peasantry and working class, thereby reducing communal tensions.

In summary, the 1930s witnessed the rise of socialist ideas globally, fueled by the economic failures of capitalism and the contrasting success of socialist planning in the Soviet Union. Jawaharlal Nehru played a pivotal role in advocating for socialism within the Indian National Congress, linking it to both economic emancipation and communal harmony.

Karachi Session, 1931

Resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy

• The Karachi session of the Congress in 1931 marked a significant departure, particularly with the passing of the resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy, influenced by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• The resolution aimed to address the exploitation of the masses, asserting that political freedom must encompass real economic freedom for all, especially the impoverished millions.
• Key guarantees included basic civil rights, equality before the law regardless of caste, creed, or sex, universal adult franchise, and free and compulsory primary education.
• Economic measures promised substantial reductions in rent and revenue, relief from agricultural debts, better conditions for workers, including a living wage and limited working hours, the right to organize and form unions for workers and peasants, and state ownership or control of key industries, mines, and transportation.

Radicalism in the Congress

• The Faizpur Congress resolution and the Election Manifesto of 1936 showcased further radicalization within the Congress, advocating for significant agrarian reforms, education in rent and revenue, scaling down of rural debts, abolition of feudal levies, and security of tenure for tenants.
• Substantial economic reforms were proposed, including a living wage for agricultural laborers and the right to form trade unions and peasant unions.
• In 1945, the Congress Working Committee recommended the abolition of landlordism, reflecting the continued radicalization within the party.

Role of Subhas Chandra Bose

• In 1938, under the presidency of Subhas Chandra Bose, the Congress committed itself to economic planning, establishing the National Planning Committee under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Bose and other leftists, including Gandhi, advocated for the public sector's role in large-scale industries to prevent wealth concentration.
• Bose also championed the principle of "land to the tiller," asserting that land belongs to those who work on it, a sentiment echoed by Nehru in 1942.

Emergence of Socialist Movements

• Outside the Congress, socialist tendencies led to the growth of the Communist Party after 1935, with leaders like P.C. Joshi.
• The Congress Socialist Party was founded in 1934, led by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan, further expanding the socialist influence beyond the Congress.

Political Dynamics within the Congress

• In 1939, despite opposition from Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose was reelected president of the Congress.
• However, due to opposition within the Congress Working Committee, Bose resigned from the presidency in April 1939, leading him and his left-wing followers to form the Forward Bloc.
• By 1939, the left within the Congress had gained significant influence, commanding about one-third of the votes on important issues.

Nationwide Awakening

• The 1930s witnessed a nationwide awakening and organization of peasants and workers in India, reflecting the growing influence and mobilization of socialist and leftist ideologies.
• Additionally, organizations like the All India Students Federation and the All India Progressive Writers Association emerged during this period, contributing to the broader socialist movement.

Overall, the Karachi Session of 1931 marked a pivotal moment in the Congress's trajectory towards socialism and economic reform, influencing both internal party dynamics and broader societal movements in India.

Congress and World Affairs

Opposition to Imperialism

• Since its inception in 1885, the Indian National Congress had been vocal in its opposition to the use of Indian resources and the Indian army to serve British interests in Africa and Asia.
• The Congress gradually developed a foreign policy centered around opposing the spread of imperialism.

Participation in International Conferences

• In February 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru represented the Indian National Congress at the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in Brussels.
• This Congress aimed to coordinate and plan the collective struggle against imperialism, gathering political exiles and revolutionaries from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• Nehru's participation led to his election to the Executive Council of the League Against Imperialism, formed during this Congress.
• The presence of left-wing intellectuals and political leaders from Europe further strengthened the Congress's international ties.

Congress's Stand Against Imperialist Wars

• The Madras session of the National Congress in 1927 warned the British government that Indians would not support any war undertaken to further imperialist aims.
• In the 1930s, the Congress firmly opposed imperialism in any part of the world and extended support to national movements in Asia and Africa.
• For instance, in 1937, when Japan attacked China, the Congress passed a resolution urging Indians to boycott Japanese goods as a gesture of solidarity with the Chinese people.
• In 1938, the Congress sent a medical mission to work with the Chinese armed forces, emphasizing its support for the struggle against imperialist aggression.

Awareness of India's Global Position

• The Congress recognized that India's future was closely linked to global struggles between fascism and the forces of freedom and socialism.
• Jawaharlal Nehru articulated this awareness in his presidential address to the Lucknow Congress in 1936.
• Nehru's address highlighted the emerging Congress approach to world problems and underscored India's position in the global arena.

The Indian National Congress's stance on world affairs reflected its commitment to opposing imperialism, supporting anti-colonial movements worldwide, and recognizing India's role in global struggles for freedom and socialism. Through participation in international conferences, resolutions, and actions, the Congress aimed to contribute to the broader fight against imperialism and fascism while asserting India's position as a key player on the world stage.

States Peoples Struggle

Spread of National Movement to Princely States

• During this period, a significant development was the extension of the national movement to the princely States.
• Many princely States were characterized by appalling economic, political, and social conditions, with resources often spent on the luxuries of the rulers.
• Practices such as serfdom, slavery, and forced labor were prevalent in several princely States, exacerbating discontent among the populace.

British Utilization of Princely States

• The British authorities strategically used the princes to prevent the growth of national unity and to counter the rising national movement.
• The establishment of the Chamber of Princes in 1921 facilitated British guidance in matters of common interest among the princes.
• In the Government of India Act of 1935, provisions were made to include princes in the federal structure, aiming to curb the forces of nationalism.

Rise of People's Movements

• In response to the oppressive conditions, people in many princely States began organizing movements for democratic rights and popular governance.
• The All-India States People's Conference, founded in December 1927, aimed to coordinate political activities across different States.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement had a profound impact on the people of princely States, inspiring them to engage in political activism.

Congress Support for States Peoples' Struggle

• The Indian National Congress extended its support to the States Peoples' struggle, urging princes to introduce democratic representative government and grant fundamental civil rights.
• In 1938, when the Congress articulated its goal of independence, it included the independence of princely States.
• At the Tripuri session the following year, the Congress resolved to take a more active role in supporting States Peoples' movements.
• Jawaharlal Nehru assumed the presidency of the All-India States Peoples Conference in 1939, symbolizing Congress's heightened engagement in the struggle for democratic rights in princely States.

The spread of the national movement to princely States represented a significant shift in India's political landscape, as people in these regions began to organize and demand democratic governance and civil rights. The Congress's support for the States Peoples' struggle underscored its commitment to inclusive and representative governance, advocating for independence not just from colonial rule but also from princely autocracy. With Nehru's leadership, the Congress aimed to mobilize support and solidarity for the democratic aspirations of people across all regions of India.

National Movement During the Second World War

Outbreak of the Second World War

• The Second World War commenced in September 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, triggering Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
• The Government of India, without consulting the Indian National Congress or elected members of the central legislature, decided to join the war effort.

Congress's Stance on the War

• The Indian National Congress sympathized with the victims of fascist aggression and was willing to aid the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism.
• However, Congress leaders demanded that India must be declared free, or at least have effective power vested in Indian hands, before actively participating in the war.
• The British government's refusal to meet this demand led to Congress ministries resigning and a period of political tension.

Limited Satyagraha

• In October 1940, Mahatma Gandhi called for a limited satyagraha by selected individuals, with Vinoba Bhave being the first to offer satyagraha.
• This action aimed to avoid embarrassing Britain's war effort with mass upheaval in India.

Cripps Mission

• In March 1942, the British government sent a mission led by Cabinet Minister Sir Stafford Cripps to India, aiming to secure Indian cooperation in the war effort.
• Cripps declared the British policy's aim was the earliest possible realization of self-government in India.
• Negotiations between Cripps and Congress leaders broke down as the British government refused the immediate transfer of power demanded by Congress.

Quit India Movement

• The failure of the Cripps Mission intensified discontent among Indians, aggravated by wartime shortages and rising prices.
• From April to August 1942, tension escalated as Japanese forces approached India, leading to fears of Japanese conquest.
• The All India Congress Committee convened in Bombay on August 8, 1942, passing the Quit India Resolution.
• This resolution proposed initiating a non-violent mass struggle under Gandhi's leadership to compel the British to accept Indian demands for independence.

The Second World War profoundly influenced the Indian national movement, with the Indian National Congress demanding immediate independence in exchange for active participation in the war effort. Despite efforts such as limited satyagraha and negotiations with the Cripps Mission, the failure to meet Congress's demands led to the launch of the Quit India Movement, signaling a shift towards more militant action in the quest for independence.

The Quit India Movement and the Indian National Army

Declaration of Resolution

• The resolution emphasized the urgent necessity of ending British rule in India, stating that it was crucial for both India's sake and the success of the United Nations' cause.
• India was described as the "classic land of modern imperialism" and was seen as pivotal in determining the judgment of Britain and the United Nations, as well as inspiring hope in the peoples of Asia and Africa.
• Gandhi's address to Congress delegates on August 8, 1942, called for immediate freedom and coined the mantra "Do or Die," rejecting any compromise short of complete independence.

Government Crackdown

• Following the declaration, Gandhi and other Congress leaders were arrested early on August 9, 1942, and the Congress was once again declared illegal.
• This sparked widespread protests across the country, with people expressing their anger and frustration through strikes, demonstrations, and acts of civil disobedience.
• Protesters seized temporary control of towns and cities in some areas and set up "parallel governments" in places like Ballia, Tamluk, and Satara.

Response and Participants

• The revolt of 1942 demonstrated the depth of nationalist feeling in India and the people's capacity for struggle and sacrifice.
• Students, workers, and peasants played a significant role in the movement, while the upper classes and bureaucracy generally remained loyal to the government.

Outcome and Legacy

• Although short-lived, the Quit India Movement showcased the intensity of nationalist sentiment and the determination of the Indian people to achieve independence.
• In 1943, Bengal was devastated by a famine, resulting in the deaths of over three million people.
• Meanwhile, Subhas Chandra Bose, after escaping from India, formed the Indian National Army (INA) in Singapore in February 1943, with the aim of conducting a military campaign for India's liberation.
• The INA, led by Bose and inspired by the slogan "Jai Hind," joined the Japanese army's march on India from Burma.
• However, with the collapse of Japan during 1944-45, the INA also faced defeat, and Subhas Bose died in an airplane accident while en route to Tokyo.

The Quit India Movement and the formation of the Indian National Army marked significant episodes in India's struggle for independence, highlighting the determination and sacrifices made by the Indian people in their quest for freedom from British rule.

Post-War Struggle and Independence

INA Trials and Changed Attitude of British Government

• The British government put INA officers on trial for breaking the oath of loyalty to the British Crown.
• However, due to various factors such as changes in the balance of power globally and the emergence of patriotic sentiments within the Indian army, the British government ultimately decided to set the INA prisoners free.

Signs of Unrest and Widespread Struggles

• Post-war India witnessed various forms of unrest, including strikes in the Royal Indian Air Forces, the Naval Mutiny, and the Tebhaga struggle by sharecroppers in Bengal.
• The British government, facing mounting pressure, sent a Cabinet Mission to negotiate with Indian leaders for the transfer of power.

Acceptance of Partition and Independence

• The Cabinet Mission proposed a two-tiered federal plan, which both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League accepted.
• However, disagreements arose over the formation of an interim government and the process of framing a constitution.
• In September 1946, an Interim Cabinet led by Jawaharlal Nehru was formed, but the Muslim League decided to boycott the constituent assembly.
• In February 1947, British Premier Clement Attlee announced that Britain would quit India by June 1948.

Partition and Accession of Princely States

• Amidst the elation of impending independence, communal riots broke out, tarnishing the celebrations.
• Under the guidance of Lord Mountbatten, India was partitioned, and Pakistan was created as a separate state.
• Most princely States acceded to India under pressure from popular movements and diplomatic negotiations led by Sardar Patel.
• Some States, like Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir, initially resisted accession but eventually joined India after internal revolts or external pressures.

Independence Day and Tragic Events

• India celebrated its first Independence Day on August 15, 1947, marking the culmination of decades of struggle and sacrifice.
• Jawaharlal Nehru's iconic speech to the Constituent Assembly reflected the collective aspirations of the Indian people for freedom and a new beginning.
• However, the joy of independence was marred by the tragic assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on January 30, 1948, reflecting the ongoing challenges and complexities of the nation-building process.

The post-war period in India was characterized by significant political developments, including negotiations for independence, the acceptance of partition, and the accession of princely States. Despite the jubilation of achieving freedom, the nation grappled with communal tensions and the aftermath of partition. The sacrifices of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and the collective efforts of the Indian people paved the way for a new era in Indian history, marked by democracy, pluralism, and the pursuit of progress and prosperity.