British Expansion in India: Bengal | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

India on the Eve of British Conquest

• The first half of the eighteenth century saw the decline of the mighty Mughals. The decline gained momentum after death of Aurangzeb due to wars of succession and weak rulers.
• Though Muhammad Shah ruled for a long spell of 29 years (1719-48), a revival of the imperial fortunes did not take place as he was an incompetent ruler. Muhammad Shah’s reign witnessed the establishment of the independent states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh and Punjab.
• Several local chiefs began to assert their independence and the Marathas began to make their bid to inherit the imperial mantle. Yet the symbolic authority of the Mughal emperor continued, as he was still considered to be a source of political legitimacy. The new states did not directly challenge his authority and constantly sought his sanction to legitimise their rule.
• In many areas of governance these states continued the Mughal institutions and the administrative system.
• The emergence of these states in the eighteenth century, therefore, represented a transformation rather than collapse of the polity. It signified a decentralisation of power and not a power vacuum or political chaos
• These new states were of various kinds with diverse histories:
  • Some of them were founded by Mughal provincial governors (successor states), e.g. Bengal, Hyderabad and Awadh
  • Also known as successor states in the sense chat they were founded by Mughal provincial governors who never formally severed their links with the centre, but virtually exercised autonomy in matters of execution of power at the local level.
  • Some were set up by the rebels against the Mughal state, so known as the rebel states or the new states.The Marathas, the Sikhs, the Jars and the Afghan kingdoms of Farukhabad and Rohilkhand.
  • A few states which asserted their independence were previously functioning as autonomous but dependent polities (known as independent kingdoms).The Rajput kingdoms, Mysore and Travancore.
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Bengal

Emergence of Autonomous Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan (1717-1727):

• 1717: Murshid Quli Khan became the governor of Bengal, gradually gaining independence from Mughal control.
• He was granted the unique privilege of holding the positions of nazim (administrator) and diwan (finance officer) simultaneously, breaking the traditional division of power.
• This consolidation of power allowed Murshid Quli, known for his efficient revenue administration, to strengthen his position further.
• Despite his power, he still sent revenue to the Mughal imperial treasury.
• The Bengal revenue was crucial for the Mughal emperors, especially during financial crises.
• Murshid Quli enjoyed increasing autonomy and began to establish a quasi-dynastic rule.
• His successful revenue administration made Bengal a consistent surplus area.
• Revenue collection rose by 20% between 1700 and 1722.

Revenue Administration and Zamindar Power:

• Murshid Quli Khan implemented detailed surveys and ensured zamindars (landlords) paid their dues in full and on time. He encouraged the growth of powerful zamindaris at the expense of smaller, inefficient ones.
• By 1727, the largest fifteen zamindaris contributed about half of Bengal's revenue.
• The rise of zamindars as a new elite was accompanied by the growing importance of merchants and bankers.

Trade and Economic Growth:

• Bengal's trade flourished due to political stability and increased agricultural productivity during Murshid Quli's rule.
• Goods like silk, cotton textiles, sugar, and oil were traded overland to Persia and Afghanistan and via the port of Hughli to Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Red Sea ports.
• In the 18th century, oceanic trade thrived, especially with European Companies like the Dutch, French, and English.
• Bengal had a favorable balance of trade, with surplus bullion brought in by European Companies to purchase Bengal goods.
• Indian trade was dominated by various merchants, including prominent figures like Hindu merchant Umi Chand and Armenian tycoon Khoja Wajid.
• These merchants maintained good relations with the state and bureaucracy.
• Rise of Banking and Financial Power
• The need for timely revenue payments led to the rise of powerful financiers and bankers, such as the banking house of Jagat Seth, which gained significant influence and eventually became treasurer of the provincial government.

Shift in Power Dynamics:

• Over time, the government of Bengal resembled a cooperative effort among dominant local forces—zamindars, merchants, and bankers—rather than rule imposed from outside.
• The increasing power of these groups marked a relative decline in the authority of the nazim.

Alivardi Khan's Coup (1739-40):

• The shift in power dynamics was exemplified by the coup in 1739-40, where Sarfaraz Khan, the nazim, was ousted by his army commander Alivardi Khan with the support of the Jagat Seth banking family and powerful zamindars.
• Alivardi Khan, who became the new nazim, later received imperial sanction for his government, marking a significant break from Mughal authority.

Key Developments in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (1756):

• Major appointments were made without consulting the emperor, and regular revenue flow to Delhi was halted.
• An autonomous administration in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa emerged, effectively independent of Mughal control.

Alivardi Khan's Relations with Europeans:

• Alivardi maintained a strict stance towards Europeans in Bengal.
• During conflicts with the Marathas, he allowed Europeans to strengthen fortifications and permitted the British to construct the Maratha Ditch in Calcutta.
• However, he also imposed heavy financial demands on them to support his military efforts.
• The Maratha Ditch was a protective moat built by the British around Calcutta in 1742 to guard against potential Maratha attacks.

Succession Crisis After Alivardi's Death:

• Upon Alivardi's death in 1756, his grandson Siraj-ud-daula (23 years old) was named his successor.
• However, his succession faced challenges from Shaukat Jung (Faujdar of Purnea) and Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi’s daughter).

Court Factionalism and the Rise of the East India Company:

• The succession dispute led to intense court factionalism, with powerful zamindars and merchants feeling threatened by the ambitious young nawab.
• This instability in Bengal's administration was exploited by the English East India Company.
• In 1757, the company gained a foothold in Bengal politics through the Plassey conspiracy, which ultimately led to the downfall of Siraj-ud-daula.

The Conflict Between the English and the Nawabs of Bengal: Siraj and the English

• In the early 18th century, Bengal became crucial to the English East India Company’s trade, surpassing the west coast ports like Bombay, Surat, and Malabar. Bengal goods accounted for nearly 60% of English imports from Asia.
• Aurangzeb's farman in 1690 granted the Company duty-free trade in Bengal for an annual payment of Rs. 3,000.
• The foundation of Calcutta in 1690 and its fortification in 1696 were followed by the grant of zamindari rights in three villages.
• After Aurangzeb’s death, the situation became unstable but was formalized again by a farman from Emperor Farruksiyar in 1717, which granted the Company the right to:
• Carry on duty-free trade
• Rent thirty-eight villages around Calcutta
• Use the royal mint
• This farman led to conflict with Murshid Quli Khan, the new ruler of Bengal, who refused to extend the duty-free provision to cover the private trade of Company officials.
• The Company misused dastaks, leading to a loss of revenue for the nawab.
• Murshid Quli denied permission for the thirty-eight villages and minting privileges.
• The conflict between the Bengal nawab and the English Company began in 1717.
• This conflict escalated with the outbreak of the Austrian Succession War in 1740.
• The war heightened hostilities between the English and French Companies in India.
• Nawab Alivardi Khan managed to keep both European companies in check.
• English fears of French power in Bengal grew in the 1750s.
• The English began fortifying Calcutta in 1755 without the nawab's permission.
• They offered protection to fugitives from his court, escalating tensions.
• The conflict intensified under Siraj-ud-daula, who became nawab in 1756.
• Siraj threatened the English private trade by stopping the misuse of dastaks.
• Known for his fierce temper, Siraj opposed British efforts to dominate Bengal.
• Key points of discord included asylum granted to Krishna Ballabh, accused of fraud.
• The fortifications at Calcutta challenged the nawab's authority.
• Fort William was established to safeguard the Company's trade in Calcutta.
• Siraj, feeling threatened, ordered the Company to cease activities without permission.
• When the Company ignored his warnings, Siraj took over the factory at Kasimbazar.
• Governor Drake sought revenge and ignored the nawab’s calls for diplomatic resolution.
• Siraj attacked and captured Calcutta on June 20.
• The garrison commander organized an escape, leaving behind 146 soldiers under Holwell's command.

Black Hole of Calcutta

• The Black Hole of Calcutta was a cramped dungeon in the old Fort William, Calcutta, where British prisoners of war were held after the fort's capture by Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah's troops on June 20, 1756.
• Holwell, one of the prisoners, reported that 123 out of 146 captives died due to suffocation, heat exhaustion, and crushing in the cramped conditions overnight. However, the exact number of deaths and the validity of Holwell's claims are disputed.
• Holwell's account prompted a retaliatory response from Robert Clive in October.
• Controversies surrounding the incident include:
• Difficulty in accurately determining the number of deaths due to the presence of many non-combatants in the fort.
• Questioning Holwell's reliability as a witness.
• The impracticality of fitting 146 European adults in a 267-square-foot space.
• Lack of independent confirmation of the incident, with Holwell's account being the primary source.
• Only forty-three garrison members were listed as missing after the incident, suggesting a maximum death toll of forty-three, though not all prisoners may have been garrison members.

Response of British:

• When the news of the fall of Calcutta reached Madras on 16 August 1756, the Council promptly dispatched an expeditionary force led by Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Watson from Madras.
• This force successfully dislodged the enemy from the fort at Budge Budge. On 2 January 1757, Clive and Watson advanced on Calcutta, where the garrison of 500 men surrendered after minimal resistance.
• With Calcutta reclaimed, the Council was reinstated, and a plan of action against the Nawab was formulated. Fort William's fortifications were reinforced, and a defensive position was established in the city's northeast.

The Bengal Campaign:

• On 9 January 1757, a force of 650 men led by Captain Coote and Major Kilpatrick stormed and plundered the town of Hooghly, located 37 km north of Calcutta.
• In response to this attack, the Nawab mobilized his army and advanced on Calcutta, setting up camp beyond the Maratha Ditch.
• Despite their victories, the British found themselves cut off from trade and resupply throughout the war. The Nawab's interest lay in prolonging the conflict, but he made the strategic error of attempting to conclude the war swiftly.
• The Nawab amassed his army, consisting of 40,000 horses,60,000 foot soldiers, and 50 elephants, and prepared to assault the city. In response, Clive decided to launch a preemptive attack, a decision that proved crucial.
• The Nawab's forces were defeated, suffering significant losses, with the British losing 57 men and the Nawab losing 1,300 men.
• Confronted with this unexpected defeat, Siraj opted for a negotiated settlement. On 9 February, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed.

Treaty of Alinagar (Feb. 9, 1757):

• The Nawab, alarmed by the British attack, agreed to the Treaty of Alinagar with the Company. This treaty was named after the brief title 'Alinagar' given to Calcutta by Siraj following his capture of the city.
• Signed on February 9, 1757, between Robert Clive and Siraj Ud Daula, the Treaty of Alinagar included several key terms:
• Restoration of Factories: The Nawab agreed to restore the Company’s factories.
• Recognition of Mughal Provisions: The Nawab would recognize all provisions of the 1717 firman issued by Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
• Duty Exemption: All British goods passing through Bengal would be exempt from duties.
• Fortification and Coin Minting Rights: The British would not be hindered from fortifying Calcutta or minting coins there.
• Nawab’s Withdrawal: The Nawab withdrew his army back to his capital Murshidabad.
• The signing of this treaty was a precursor to the famous Battle of Plassey. Although there was peace for the moment, Clive had broader ambitions for Bengal.
• Even before departing for Bengal, Clive had expressed his intent that the expedition would not end with the mere retaking of Calcutta. He aimed for the Company’s estate in Bengal to be settled in a stronger and more enduring manner than ever before.
• Amid concerns about the approaching French threat, particularly with Bussy in Bengal and the ongoing Seven Years’ War in Europe, the Company focused on countering the French influence in Bengal.
• The British, fearing Siraj’s alliance with the French and potential reductions in their trading privileges, attacked Hughli and achieved a French defeat at Chandernagore.
• The Nawab, enraged by the attack on Chandernagore, rekindled his animosity towards the British. He sought to strengthen his position through alliances against the British. Additionally, concerned about a potential Afghan invasion under Abdali, Siraj initially leaned towards a negotiated settlement.
• However, Clive, feeling confident, opted for a coup d’état.

Conspiracy for Coup d'Etat:

• The British officials in Calcutta were unwilling to accept a young, tyrannical Nawab who threatened their trading privileges and potential profits.
• At the Nawab's court, there was a faction of discontented individuals, including merchants, bankers, and zamindars like the Jagat Seth brothers, who felt threatened by the Nawab's attempts to assert independence and reorganize power.
• There was a natural alliance between the Indian mercantile community and European traders, as many Indian merchants collaborated with the English Company, supplying textiles in exchange for advances.
• Indian merchant princes preferred English ships for transporting their cargo, leading to the decline of the port of Hughli and the rise of Calcutta.
• A conspiracy emerged to replace Siraj with Mir Jafar, the Nawab's commander-in-chief, backed by the Jagat Seths, whose support was crucial for any coup.
• Historians debate whether the conspiracy existed at the Murshidabad court before the English intervened or if the English initiated it.
• What matters is the collusion that led to the Battle of Plassey in June 1757, where Siraj was defeated by Clive.

Mir Jafar (1757-1760)

• After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal, but he was mostly a puppet, relying on the British for support and protection.
• Due to his incompetence, the real power remained with the British throughout his reign. An English army of 6,000 troops was stationed in Bengal to support the Nawab.
• The British established sovereignty over Calcutta, and a Resident was posted at the Nawab’s court.
• Mir Jafar faced severe financial difficulties as British officials extracted money from him in various ways. He also had to pay a large sum to Clive as a token of gratitude.
• Under financial pressure and the growing dominance of the British, Mir Jafar became restless. In 1759, the Dutch conspired with him against the British.

Battle of Chinsura / Bedara (1759)

• Feeling overwhelmed by his subordinate position to the British, Mir Jafar encouraged the Dutch to attack the British and take control of Bengal.
• In late 1759, the Dutch sent a large force to Bengal under the guise of reinforcing their settlement in Chinsura, despite Britain and Holland not being officially at war.
• Clive promptly launched offensive operations and defeated the larger Dutch force on November 25, 1759, in the Battle of Chinsura.
• In the same year,Ali Gohour, the eldest son of the Mughal Emperor, rebelled against his father and besieged Patna with the help of Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh. Mir Jafar felt incapable of facing Ali Gohour alone and sought assistance from the British.
• With British support, Mir Jafar defeated the Mughal army. In return for this assistance, Clive was granted the right to collect revenue from South Calcutta, known as Clive’s Jagir. This arrangement caused Mir Jafar further financial loss.
• When Clive returned to England due to illness, he was honored with a peerage, becoming Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey, and gained a seat in the British House of Commons.
• After Clive’s departure, the company’s servants became uncontrollable, amassing wealth through corrupt means. Mir Jafar, unable to meet further demands due to an empty treasury, lost interest in governance.
• As Mir Jafar struggled with financial constraints and declining interest in government, the people of Bengal grew dissatisfied with his inability to manage administration effectively.
• In this context, the British sought an alternative successor in Mir Kasim, Mir Jafar’s son-in-law, who promised to pay the British more than Mir Jafar.

Mir Kasim

• Mir Kasim faced challenges after Mir Jafar's betrayal and failure to fulfill payments to the Company, causing discontent among the English.
• Following the death of Mir Jafar's son, a struggle for the Nawabship of Bengal erupted between Mir Kasim and Mir Jafar's grandson.
• Vansittart, the new Governor of Calcutta, supported Mir Kasim's claim after a treaty was signed in 1760 between Mir Kasim and the Company.
• Key features of the treaty included:
  • Mir Kasim's cession of Burdwan, Midnapur, and Chittagong districts to the Company.
  • The Company acquiring half of the chunam trade share in Sylhet.
  • Mir Kasim settling outstanding dues to the Company.
  • A contribution of five lakh rupees from Mir Kasim towards the Company's war efforts in southern India.
  • Mutual alignment of enemies and friends between Mir Kasim and the Company.
  • Restriction on tenant settlements between Mir Kasim's territory and the Company's lands.
• Under Company pressure, Mir Jafar resigned in favor of Mir Kasim with a fixed pension of Rs 1,500 per annum for Mir Jafar.
• Mir Kasim, ruling from 1761 to 1763, proved to be a capable Nawab, more ambitious and talented than Mir Jafar.
• He was not content being a puppet of the British.
• Upon taking power, Mir Kasim relocated the capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar for safety from the Company in Calcutta.
• He reorganized the bureaucracy with his own choices and restructured the army, establishing armament factories and training soldiers in Western military practices.
• To strengthen his position against the English, he collected state arrears and abolished internal duties, allowing Indian merchants the same privileges as the Company.
• These actions displeased the British, leading them to replace Mir Kasim with Mir Jafar once more

Background of the Battle of Buxar

• The Battle of Buxar was rooted in the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey when Mir Kasim became the Nawab of Bengal. The main cause of the conflict was the struggle between the British East India Company and Mir Kasim. The Company initially believed that Mir Kasim would be a compliant ruler, but he proved to be quite the opposite.
• Mir Kasim faced challenges from Ram Narayan, the deputy governor of Bihar, who ignored the Nawab's requests for revenue accounts. This defiance was supported by English officials in Patna.
• The conflict escalated over transit duty, leading to wars between the English and Mir Kasim in 1763. The English achieved victories, forcing Mir Kasim to flee to Allahabad.
• In Allahabad, Mir Kasim sought to form an alliance with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh. Shah Alam II had been trying to establish his own kingdom in the eastern provinces since fleeing Delhi politics in 1758.
• After proclaiming himself emperor in December 1759, Shah Alam II appointed Shuja-ud-Daulah as his wazir. When Mir Kasim sought refuge, it took lengthy negotiations to secure Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daulah's support against the English. Shuja-ud-Daulah was promised Bihar and its treasury, along with a payment of Rs 30 million upon success.

The Battle:

• Fought on October 23, 1764, at Katkauli near Buxar, Bengal.
• British East India Company forces, led by Hector Munro, faced the combined army of Mir Qasim(Nawab of Bengal),Shuja-ud-Daulah(Nawab of Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
• The British emerged victorious due to their military efficiency and coordination, while the Indian allies struggled with coordination and organization.

Aftermath:

• Mir Kasim fled and died in the North-West.
• Shah Alam II sought refuge with the British after the defeat.
• Shuja-ud-Daulah initially resisted but eventually fled to Rohilkhand.
• In 1765, Lord Clive returned to India after the battle.

Treaty of Allahabad (1765)

• Two treaties were signed at Allahabad after the battle.
• First Treaty between the East India Company (Lord Clive) and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II:
• The Mughal Emperor granted the East India Company Fiscal Rights (Diwani) to administer and collect taxes in Bengal,Bihar, and Orissa.
• The Nawab of Bengal received Nizamat rights(police and judicial authority).
• The Company paid an annual tribute of 26 Lakh Rupees to the Mughals.
• The districts of Kora and Allahabad were returned to the Mughal Emperor.
• Second Treaty between the East India Company (Lord Clive) and Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daulah:
• Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah, but Allahabad and Kora were taken from him.
• Shuja-ud-Daulah paid 53 Lakhs rupees as war indemnity to the British.
• The Zamindari of Banaras region was given to Balwant Rai.
• An English Resident would be stationed at Lucknow, with the Nawab bearing all expenses.
• The Company gained duty-free trading rights in Awadh.
• Shuja-ud-Daulah entered into an offensive and defensive treaty with the Company, agreeing to provide military assistance.
• The British Resident in Murshidabad gradually became the center of administrative power in Bengal.
• Clive's arrangements settled the fate of Northern India, avoiding annexation of Awadh to prevent extensive land defense obligations.
• Clive's agreement with Shah Alam II made the emperor a useful figurehead, legitimizing the Company's gains in Bengal.

Significance of the Battle of Buxar

• The battle was significant as it marked the defeat of not only the Nawab of Bengal but also the Mughal Emperor by the English, establishing the latter as a major power in Northern India and contenders for supremacy over the entire country.
• The British treated the defeated Mughal emperor with respect due to his symbolic significance in 18th-century Indian politics, not formally repudiating his sovereignty until 1857.
• The victory at Buxar consolidated British rule in Bengal, reducing the Nawab to a figurehead, and initiating unchecked plundering of Bengal's wealth.
• The battle highlighted the political weaknesses and military shortcomings of Indian forces and the Mughal Empire, proving the military superiority of the English.
• The Treaty of Allahabad marked the establishment of East India Company rule over one-eighth of India and solidified British dominance in Bengal.
• While the Battle of Plassey secured a foothold for the British, the Battle of Buxar made them the dominant force in India, completing the work of Plassey.
• With the wealth of Bengal, the British could conquer other regions of India, establishing supremacy in Eastern India and rivetting the shackles of company rule upon Bengal.
• The verdict of Plassey was confirmed by the English victory at Buxar.